HISTORY  OF  NATIONS. 


'«  .■^>   ■'  nr; 


LAKE  LOUISE 


AN    mSTORICAL    AND    DESCRIPTIVE 
ACCOUNT    OF 

BRITISH     AMERICA; 

COMPREHENDING 

CANADA,    UPPER    AND     LOWER,    NOVA    SCOTIA,    NEW- 
BRUNSWICK,     NEWFOUNDLAND,     PRINCE      ED- 
WARD   ISLAND,    THE    BERMUDAS    AND 
THE    FUR    COUNTRIES  ; 


THEIR  HISTORY  FROM  THE  EARLIEST  SETTLEMENT;  THEIR 
STATISTICS,  TOPOGRAPHY,  COMMBRCE,  FISHERIES,  *C-  ;  AND 
THEIR  SOCIAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITION;  AS  ALSO  AN  AC- 
COUNT OF  THE  MANNERS  AND  PRESENT  STATE  OF  THI 
ABORIGINAL   TRIBES. 


BY    HUGH    MURRAY,    F.R.  S.E. 

IN    TWO    VOUTMES. 

VOL.  I. 


THE  BRADLEY    COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS.^ 

NEW  XORK 


SRLF 
URL 


ADVERTISEMENT 

BT     THE     AMERICAN     PXTBLISHERS, 


The  subject  to  which  these  volumes  relate  is  one 
possessing  great  interest  to  the  American  reader. 
The  history  of  the  present  British  possessions  on 
this  continent  is,  in  the  different  periods  of  their 
discovery,  settlement,  and  growth,  intimately  con- 
nected with  our  own.  Bordering,  too,  upon  our 
whole  northern  and  eastern  frontier,  they  are, 
throughout  this  vast  extent  of  nearly  four  thousand 
miles,  brought  into  immediate  contact  with  us. 
Whether,  therefore,  these  countries  continue  in  a 
state  of  colonial  dependance,  or  at  some  future  day 
successfully  assert  their  claim  to  self-government, 
it  is  manifest  that,  in  either  case,  there  must  be  re- 
lations of  the  highest  importance  between  them  and 
the  United  States.  Recent  occurrences  also,  both 
in  the  provinces  and  within  our  own  borders,  and 
the  very  unsatisfactory  condition  of  our  relations 
with  Great  Britain,  arising  out  of  conflicting  claims, 
involving  great  national  considerations,  with  regard 
to   our   extreme   northeastern   and   northwestern 


Vlll  ADVERTISEMENT. 

boundaries,  give  to  the  subjects  treated  of  in  this 
work  peculiar  interest  at  the  present  moment. 

From  the  high  reputation  of  their  author,  and  the 
uare  which  has  been  employed  by  the  American  ed- 
itor in  preparing  these  volumes,  the  publishers  feel 
great  confidence  in  offering  them  to  the  public.  In 
the  English  edition  there  were  found  to  be  great 
minuteness  and  proHxity  of  detail  in  relation  to 
statistics,  &c.,  and  several  subjects  treated  of  at 
large  which  could  only  be  considered  as  of  local  in- 
terest. It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  American  edi- 
tor so  to  condense  the  work,  as  to  retain  all  that 
was  most  valuable,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  disen- 
cumber it  of  those  parts  which  were  of  inferior  im- 
portance, and  which  would  have  rendered  it,  as  a 
whole,  less  entertaining,  without  being  more  useful, 
to  the  general  reader.  Notes  have  been  added 
wherever  it  was  thought  necessary  to  observe  and 
correct  what  was  believed  to  be  erroneous  in  t<ie 
statements  of  the  author. 

n.&B 

New-York,  May  184C 


PREFACE. 


The  territories  of  British  America,  even  after 
having  lost  enough  to  constitute  one  of  the  greatest 
states  in  the  world,  embrace  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  earth's  surface,  and  present  natural  features 
at  once  extremely  grand  and  romantic.  The  na- 
tive inhabitants  were  distinguished  by  energy  and 
intelligence  above  all  the  other  rude  tribes  of  the 
Western  Continent,  and  displayed,  perhaps,  beyond 
any  similar  race,  the  most  striking  peculiarities  of 
savage  life.  Their  long  and  fierce  struggles,  before 
yielding  to  the  superior  numbers  and  martial  skill 
of  Europeans,  gave  rise  to  scenes  much  more  inter, 
esting  than  ever  diversify  the  routine  of  civilized 
warfare.  Finally,  the  exploits  by  which  those  re- 
gions were  added  to  the  dominion  of  Britain,  are 
acknowledged  to  rank  among  the  most  brilliant  that 
adorn  her  annals  in  any  age. 

These  colonies,  too,  have  acquired  an  augment, 
ed  importance  from  the  great  changes  effected  in 
our  own  times.  Their  rich  and  varied  products, 
their  vast  extent,  and  the  strong  direction  which 
emigrants  from  Britain  have  taken  towards  their 


X  PREFACE. 

shores,  encourage  the  expectation  that  they  will  one 
day  become  the  seat  of  great  nations,  equalling  or 
even  surpassing  the  power  of  the  mother  country. 
A  deep  interest  is  naturally  felt  in  their  future  pros, 
pects,  more  especially  when  connected  with  the 
numbers,  amounting  during  the  last  twenty  years 
to  nearly  half  a  million,  who  have  removed  thither 
from  various  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  author,  thus  deeply  impressed  with  the  im- 
portance of  his  task,  has  anxiously  sought  every 
means  of  rendering  its  performance  complete  and 
satisfactory.  In  tracing  the  condition  and  history 
of  the  aboriginal  tribes,  as  influenced  by  the  early 
settlement  of  Europeans,  he  has  had  access  to  ex- 
tensive  works  and  collections  in  the  French  lan- 
guage, to  which  former  writers  appear  to  have  been 
strangers.  He  has  devoted  much  attention  to  the 
statistics  and  present  state  of  the  colonies  ;  an  un- 
dertaking which  was  attended  with  considerable 
difficulty,  on  account  of  the  rapid  changes  which 
have  recently  occurred,  and  rendered  all  previous 
information  in  a  great  measure  useless.  Hence, 
besides  the  works  of  Bouchette,  M'Gregor,  Martin, 
and  others,  it  was  necessary  to  examine  the  tables 
published  by  the  Board  of  Trade,  the  voluminous 
reports  laid  before  Parliament,  and  to  compare  them 
with  the  narratives  of  the  latest  travellers  and  res- 
idents. 


PREFACE.  XI 

Even  with  all  these  resources,  it  was  found  to  be 
impossible  to  render  the  information  complete  with, 
out  obtaining  personal  conununications  from  vari- 
ous  quarters.  It  is  gratifying  to  the  author  to 
mention,  that  on  the  mere  statement  of  his  object, 
and  of  the  name  of  the  work  for  which  he  was 
collecting  materials,  the  most  valuable  intelligence 
was  cheerfully  conveyed  to  him.  Particular  ac- 
knowledgments are  due  to  Mr.  Simpson,  the  en- 
lightened resident  governor  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Establishment.  From  other  sources  of  high  au- 
thority,  valuable  information,  otherwise  inaccessi- 
ble,  has  been  obtained. 

The  reader  will  appreciate  one  pecuHar  difficulty 
under  which  the  author  laboured,  namely,  that 
while  he  was  composing  the  work,  and  even  su. 
perintending  its  passage  through  the  press,  the  sub. 
ject  was  undergoing  an  incessant  change  ;  and  at 
length  the  principal  provinces  became  the  theatre 
of  some  very  momentous  occurrences.  He  has 
assiduously  studied  to  trace,  by  means  of  the  most 
authentic  documents,  the  course  of  those  events, 
and  to  exhibit  them  in  a  condensed  and  connected 
7iew. 


CONTENTS 

TO 

THE    FIRST   VOLUME. 

CHAPTER  I. 

General  View  of  Canada. 

Canada,  its  Boundaries  and  general  Features. — Lakes— Su- 
pbfioc — Huron— St.  Clair — Erie — Niagara  Channel— Lake 
Ontario. —  Islands  and  Rapids  of  the  8t.  Lawrence. — The  Ot- 
tawa.—The  St.  Lawrence  from  Montreal  to  Quebec. — Its 
lower  Course. — This  Region  remarkable  for  its  Waterfalls. — 
Niagara. — Its  Description. — Supposed  Changes  in  its  Position. 

—  Lower  Canada,  its  Boundaries. —  Surface. —  Divisions. — 
District  of  Quebec— City  of  that  Name. — Situation;  Upper 
and  Lower  Town  ;  Vicinity. — Fall  of  Montmorenci. — The 
Saguenay.— Lower  Coast— Shores  above  Quebec. — Trois 
Rivieres,  Town  and  District. —  Montreal  District. —  City. — 
Catholic  Cathedral.— Rural  Districts.— Ottawa  Province. — 
Country  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence.—  Settlements  on  the 
Richelieu. — Southern  part  of  Trois  Rivieres  District.— South- 
ern part  of  Quebec. — Lower  Shores  of  the  St.  Lawrence. — 
Gaspe.— Upper  Canada,  its  Boundaries. — Surface  and  Extent. 
— Progress  of  Settlement  and  Cultivation. — Climate  and  Soil. 

—  Divisions — Eastern  Division— Central  Division. — Town  of 
Kingston.— City  of  Toronto. — Western   Section — Its  early 

-  Settlement. — Huron  Tract. — Amherstburg. — Climate. — How 
It  differs  from  that  of  Europe. — Effects  on  Agriculture.^ 
Boundary  Question  with  the  United  States. — Reference  to  the 
Knig  of  Holland. — Its  Issue      ....  Page  17 

CHAPTER  n. 

IThe  Native  Indians  inhabiting  Canada  and  its  BoT' 

ders. 

F  iculiar  Condition  of  those  Tribes. — Their  Physical  Character 

—  Form  —Colour — Hair  and  Beard — Bodily  Strength. —  Dress, 
Vol.  1    -B 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

— Ornaments— Painting  and  Tattooing  of  the  Skin. — Modei 
of  Subsistence. — Hunting. — Cultivation. — Food. — Houses. — 
Canoes. — Spirit  of  Independence. — Internal  Order. — Marria- 
ges.— Rearing  of  Ciuldren.— Intellectual  Ciiaracter.— Orato- 
ry.— Style  of  Composition  — Religious  Ideas. — Importance  at- 
tached to  Dreams. — The  Manitou. — Ideas  of  a  Future  State. 
—Reverence  for  the  Dead. — Ceremonies  of  Interment. — Su- 
perstitious Modes  of  curing  the  Sick. — Indian  Wars. — Their 
Motives. —  Preparations. —  .March. — Modes  of  attacking  and 
surprising  the  Enemy. — Return. — Treatment  of  Prisoners  ; 
Tortures  ;  Adoption. — Treaties. — Indian  Amusements — Mu 
sic— Dancing — Smoking — Games. — Different  Tribes  inhabit 
ing  Canada  and  its  Borders Page  73 

CHAPTER  III. 

History  of  Canada  under  the  French. 

Earliest  Discoveries  of  the  English  and  French. — De  la  Roche. 
— Chauvin  and  Pontgrave. — De  Monts. — Champlain,  em- 
ployed by  him,  ascends  the  St.  Lawrence. — Founds  Quebec. 
—  Dealings  with  a  Party  of  Natives. — Joins  a  warlike  Expe- 
dition.—  Victory. — Torture. —  Transactions  in  France. — Fresh 
military  FiUcounter.  —  Foundation  of  Montreal.  —  Various 
Transactions. — Voyage  up  the  Ottawa. — Great  Expedition 
against  the  Iroquois. — Unsuccessful. — Difficulties  in  France. 
— Appointment  of  De  Caen. — Peace  among  the  Indian  Tribes. 
— Duke  de  Ventadour  Viceroy. — Rupture  of  the  Treaty. — 
Quebec  taken  by  the  English. — Restored. — Large  Supplies 
sent  out. —  Death  of  Champlain. — Great  Power  of  the  Five 
Nations. — Treaty  with  them.— War  renewed.— Destruction 
of  the  French  Indian  Allies.— A  Remnant  flee  to  Quebec. — 
Iroquois  Masters  of  Canada.— Louis  XIV.  determines  to  re- 
enforce  the  Colony. — Expedition  under  De  Tracy. — Govern- 
ment of  De  Courcelles. — Frontenac— De  la  Barre. — His  fruit- 
less Expedition. — Denonville. — His  violent  Proceedings. — 
Critical  state  of  the  Colony. — Second  Government  of  Fron- 
tenac.— (^aptur-a  of  Corlaer  or  Schenectady.— The  English 
under  Phipps  attack  Quebec— Repulsed.— Negotiations  with 
the  Indians. — Invasion  of  their  Territory. — Death  of  Fron- 
tenac.— De  CuUieres. — Peace,  and  speedy  Renewal  of  War. 
— Attempts  by  the  English  to  conquer  Canada. — Treaty  of 
Utrecht. — Charlevoix's  .\ccount  of  the  State  of  the  Colony. 
—Its  prosperity.— Ai'ministration  of  Du  Quesne      .        .   .128 


CONTENTS.  XI 


CHAPTER  IV 

History  of  Canada  under  the  British. 

War  between  Great  Britain  and  France. — Advantages  gained 
by  the  latter. — Expedition  against  Canada  under  Woll'e. — 
His  first  Repulse.— Lands  a  second  Time.  —  Victory. —  Death. 
— Conquest  of  Canada.— State  of  tiie  Population.— Tlieir 
good  'i'reatnient.— Refuse  to  join  tlie  Rebellion  by  the  United 
Colonies.— Tlie  latter  invade  Canada.— Siege  of  Quebec. — 
Repulse  and  Death  of  Montgomery. — Americans  driven  out 
of  Canada. — A  Constitution  granted,— Division  into  Tapper 
and  Lower.— Rise  of  Internal  Dissension. — War  with  the 
United  States. — Advantages  gained  by  Britain  on  the  west- 
ern Frontier.— On  the  iNiagua,  &c.— The  Americans  take 
York  (Toronto)  and  Fort  George.— Obliged  to  Retreat.— Theit 
Successes  m  the  West.— Fruitless  Attempt  on  iMontreal.— 
Events  on  the  Niagara  Frontier. — Large  Re-enforcements 
from  England. — Failure  of  Sir  George  Prevost. — Peace. — 
Discontents  of  the  Assembly.— Administration  of  the  Duke 
of  Richmond.— Earl  of  Dalhousie. — Sir  James  Kempt. — Lord 
Aylmer. — Increased  Discontent. — Commission  of  Inquiry.— 
Earl  of  Gosford. — Assembly  still  refuse  Supplies. — Resolu- 
tions of  the  British  Parliament.— Disturbances  in  Canada. — 
Insurrection. — Suppressed.  — Political  Move"ients  in  Upper 
Canada.— Sir  Fmncis  Head  Governor.— Rising  and  Defeat  jf 
Mackenzie.-- Aggressions  from  the  United  States —Conduct 
of  their  Government.— Mission  of  the  Earl  of  Durham.— Re- 
cent Events     .  ...  .        ,  Page  210 

CHAPTER  V. 

Social  and  Political  Siafe  of  Canada. 

Different  Classes  of  People.— French  Habitans— Their  Tep 
ures. — Outward  Appearance. —  .Mode  of  Living.— Religious 
and  moral  Character.— Manuprs  in  Upper  Canada. — Mode  ol 
Living.— Native  Indians.— Their  Number.— Catholic  Indians. 
— Hurons  of  Loreito.— Ditfereut  Tribes.— Effects  of  Protes- 
tant Conversion.— Government  Expenditure  on  them.— Pres- 
ent Dress  and  Modeof  living.— Religious  Instruction  in  Lower 
and  Upper  Canada.— Education.  — Political  State.— Govern 
menl  umier  the  French.— British  Arrangeinei;ts— Constitu- 
tion granted  to  the  Cauadas. — Division  into  Upper  and  Lower. 
—Revenue.— Military  Force.— Justice    .  288 


HISTORICAL  AND  DESCRIPTIVE 
ACCOUNT 

OF 

BRITISH   AMERICA. 

CHAPTER  I. 

General  View  of  Canada. 

Canada,  its  Boundaries  and  general  Features. — Lakes — Su- 
perior— Huron— St.  Clair — Erie — Niagara  Channel— Lak« 
Ontario.— Islands  and  Rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence. — The  Ot- 
tawa.— The  St.  Lawrence  from  Montreal  to  Quebec. — Its 
lower  Course. — This  Region  remarkable  for  its  Waterfalls.— 
Niagara.— Its  Description.— Supposed  Changes  in  its  Position. 

—  Lower  Canada,  its  Boundaries. —  Surface. —  Divisions. — 
District  of  Quebec. — City  of  that  Name. — Situation  ;  Upper 
and  Lower  Town  ;  Vicinity. — Fall  of  Montmorenci. — The 
Saguenay. — Lower  Coast— Shores  above  Quebec. — Trois 
Rivieres,  Town  and  District.— Montreal  District. —  City. — 
Catholic  Cathedral.— Rural  Districts.— Ottawa  Province. — 
Country  south  of  the  St.  Lawience. —  Settlements  on  the 
Richelieu. — Southern  part  of  Trois  Rivieres  District.— South- 
ern part  of  Quebec. — Lower  Shores  of  the  St.  Lawrence. — 
Gaspe. — Upper  Canada,  its  Boundaries.— Surface  and  Extent. 

—  Progress  of  Settlement  and  Cultivation. — Climate  and  Soil. 

—  Divisions — Eastern  Division — Central  Division. — Town  ot 
Kingston.— City  of  Toronto. — Western  Section — Us  early 
Settlement. — Huron  Tract. — Amherstburg. — Climate. — How 
it  differs  from  that  of  Europe. — Effects  on  Agriculture. — 
Boundary  Question  with  the  United  States — Reference  to  the 
King  of  Holland. — Its  Issue. 

Canada  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  a  range  of 
hills  separating  it  from  the  territory  of  the  HudsonV 


18       GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CANADA. 

Bay  Company ;  on  the  east  by  Labrador,  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  and  New-Brunswick ;  and  on  the 
south  by  the  United  States.  The  western  hniit  is 
very  vague ;  but  usage  does  not  seem  to  extend  it 
farther  than  Lake  Superior.  Canada  may  therefore 
be  described  as  lying  between  the  meridians  of  57o 
50'  and  90^  W.,  and  the  parallels  of  42°  and  52°  N. , 
being  about  1300  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  700 
from  north  to  south.  The  area  is  estimated  at 
348,000  square  miles.* 

Canada,  in  a  general  view,  consists  of  a  very  ex- 
tensive plain,  situated  between  two  ranges  of  high 
land  ;  one  on  the  nortli,  separating  it  from  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  territory,  another  on  the  south,  dividing 
it  from  New-Brunswick  and  the  United  States. 
The  grounds  which  stretch  along  the  borders  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  the  lakes  are  esteemed  the  most 
valuable  portion  of  it.  Neither  of  the  ranges  now 
mentioned  aspires  to  an  alpine  character;  nor,  if 
we  except  Mars  Hill  in  the  disputed  territory,!  does 
any  part  of  them  appear  to  reach  2000  feet.  But 
they  extend  over  a  vast  surface,  are  very  broken 
and  rugged,  covered  with  dense  forests,  while  tor- 
rents dash  down  their  sides,  tilling  the  valleys  with 
numerous  lakes.  Both  on  the  north,  in  the  upper 
part  of  Quebec  district,  and  on  the  south,  in  that  of 
Gaspe,  the  hills  press  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  giv- 
ing to  it  an  air  of  much  grandeur.  Higher  up  they 
recede,  and  form  on  either  side  a  gradually-widen- 
ing and  beautiful  plain,  susceptible  of  the  most  per- 
fect cultivation.  In  Upper  Canada  this  level  tract 
attains  a  very  great  breadth,  and  partly  includes  the 
basin  of  the  noble  stream  of  the  Ottawa.  On  the 
■west  it  appears  to  terminate  with  Lake  Huron;  for 
the  northern  coast  of  that  fine  sheet  of  water,  as  well 
as  of  Lake  Superior,  is  flanked  by  the  mountains ; 
a  circumstance  which  renders  their  shores  rough 

*  Bouchelte,  vol.  i.,  p.  63,  C4,  1  73-182. 
t  The  northeastern  portion  of  Maine. 


GENERAL   VIEW    OF    CANADA.  19 

and  craggy.  It  is  said  that  behind  this  rocky  screen 
there  is  much  valuable  land  still  uncultivated.* 

But  the  characteristic  feature  of  this  region  is  its 
waters,  more  particularly  its  immense  lakes,  which, 
in  respect  to  depth  and  extent  of  surface,  have  no 
equal  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  The  Caspian  cer- 
taiuly  exceeds  the  largest  of  them,  separately  con- 
sidered ;  but  that  great  body  of  sail  water,  besides 
being  comparatively  very  shallow,  has  no  outlet: 
whereas  the  Canadian  lakes  supply,  without  appa- 
rent dimiiuition,  the  vast  stream  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence. The  smallest  of  them  is  tossed  by  tempests 
like  the  ocean,  and  on  its  surface  war  was  recently 
waged  in  ships  of  the  first  magnitude. 

Lake  Superior  is  the  largest  of  these  inland  seas, 
and  indeed  the  most  extensive  body  of  fresh  water 
in  the  world.  Its  form  is  an  irregular  crescent, 
having  the  convex  side  towards  Canada;  it  is  very 
broad  in  the  centre  ;  but  the  southeastern  and  south- 
western extremities  terminate  almost  in  points.  Its 
length,  following  the  line  of  the  curve,  is  estimated 
by  Captain  Bayfield  at  360  geographical  miles,  the 
greatest  breadth  at  140,  and  the  circumference  about 
1500.  Its  surface  appears  to  be  627  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  shores  afford  indica- 
tions of  its  having  once  been  40  or  50  feet  higher. 
The  soundings  have  been  given  variously  from  480 
to  900  feet ;  and  the  greatest  depth  is  believed  to  be 
about  1200.  The  transparency  of  the  water  is  com- 
pletely crystalline,  rendering  rocks,  even  at  extra- 
ordinary depths,  distinctly  visible. f    The   bottom 

♦  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  185,  186,  283-294,  297,  298. 

+  The  remarkable  transparency  of  the  waters  of  this  lake  has 
been  attributed  to  the  rocky  nature  of  its  shores,  and  the  small 
quantity  of  earthy  matter  brought  down  by  the  streams  flowing 
into  it.  But  the  phenomenon  here  alluded  to  is  not  peculiar  to 
this  lake.  The  waters  of  the  other  great  lakes  are  scarcely  less 
clear,  though  their  shores  are  of  a  quite  difl'eient  character,  and 
abundance  of  earthy  matter  is  mingled  with  the  streams  which 
are  their  tributaries.    Is  it  not  probable  that  tlie  great  purity  ol 


20        GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CANADA. 

consists  chiefly  of  a  very  adhesive  clay,  which 
speedily  indurates  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere. 
In  violent  gales,  the  waves  rise  nearly  as  high  as 
those  on  the  ocean  ;  and  though  there  are,  of  course, 
no  tides,  the  wind,  when  it  blows  strongly  from  any 
one  point,  throws  the  water  with  considerable  force 
on  the  opposite  shore.  In  spring,  too,  it  is  some- 
times greatly  swelled  by  the  melting  of  the  snows. 

This  lake,  as  formerly  observed,  is  bordered  by 
hills,  which  in  some  places  rise  precipitously  from 
the  shore,  and  in  others  leave  intervals  of  various 
breadth,  amounting  occasionally  to  fifty  or  seventy 
miles.  It  is  remarkable,  that  while  every  other 
large  lake  is  fed  by  rivers  of  the  first  order,  this, 
the  most  capacious  on  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
does  not  receive  a  third  or  even  fourth  rate  stream  ; 
the  St.  Louis,  the  most  considerable,  not  having  a 
course  of  more  than  150  miles.  But  whatever  de- 
ficiency there  may  be  in  point  of  magnitude,  it  is 
compensated  by  the  vast  number  which  pour  in 
their  copious  floods  from  the  surrounding  heights. 
The  dense  covering  of  wood,  and  the  long  contin- 
uance of  frost,  must  also,  in  this  region,  greatly  di- 
minish the  quantity  drawn  off"  by  evaporation.* 

The  surplus  waters  of  Lake  Superior  enter  near 
its  southeastern  extremity  into  St.  Mary's  Channel, 
from  one  to  two  miles  in  breadth,  by  which  they 
are  transmitted  into  Lake  Huron,  nearly  forty  miles 
distant.  About  midway  are  St.  Mary's  Falls,  scarce- 
ly entitled  to  this  appellation,  being  merely  a  con- 
tinued cataract,  in  which  the  current  forces  its  way 
through  broken  rocks  with  tremendous  noise  and 
amid  clouds  of  foam.     These  rapids  cannot  be  as- 

their  waters  is  owing  principally  to  the  extraordinary  depth  and 
extent  of  these  inland  seas,  the  peculiar  nature  of  their  bottom, 
and  the  geological  character  of  the  region  in  which  they  are  sit- 
uated ? — Am.  Ed. 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  127,  128.  Darby  8  View  of  the  TJni 
ted  States  (18mo,  Philadelphia,  1828,\  p.  200. 


GENERAL    VIEV/    OF    CANADA.  21 

cended  ;  but  canoes,  though  with  great  danger,  some- 
times shoot  downward.  The  more  prudent  avoid 
them  by  a  portage  of  two  miles. 

The  Huron,  into  which  this  r-hannel  expands,  is 
the  second  in  succession,  as  well  as  in  magnitude, 
of  this  great  chain.  Its  outhne  is  very  irregular,  but 
may,  in  a  general  view,  be  said  to  have  three  sides, 
two  facing  the  north  and  east,  and  belonging  to 
Canada,  while  the  third  looks  to  the  soutliwest,  and 
forms  part  of  the  United  States.  Its  extreme  length, 
from  the  entry  to  the  outlet,  is  about  240  miles ;  its 
breadth  is  not  less  than  220  ;  and  the  circumference 
is  supposed  to  be  nearly  1000.  Its  surface  is  only 
thirty-two  feet  lower  than  that  of  Superior  ;  and  it 
is  equally  distinguished  liy  iis  extraordinary  depth, 
estimated  at  900  or  1000  feet,  and  by  the  brilliant 
transparency  of  its  waters.  A  range  of  islands 
runs  parallel  to  its  northern  shore,  and,  with  the 
peninsula  of  Cabot,  separates  almost  completely 
the  upper  part  from  the  main  body,  so  that  it  was 
considered  by  the  earliest  discoverers  as  a  distinct 
basin.  Among  these  islands  the  chief  is  the  Great 
Manitoulin,  seventy-five  miles  long,  viewed  by  the 
Indians  with  superstitious  awe  as  the  chosen  abode 
of  their  Great  Spirit.  At  the  outlet  of  the  St.  Mary 
the  two  islets  of  St.  Joseph  and  Drummond  are  for- 
tified as  frontier  stations,  the  former  by  Britain  and 
the  latter  by  the  United  States.  The  coast  is  gen- 
erally rugged,  broken  into  heights  of  from  30  to  100 
feet,  formed  of  clay,  rolled  stones,  precipitous  rocks, 
and  woody  steeps.  Towards  the  north  the  bold  ridge 
of  the  Cloche  mountains  exhibits  several  lofty  sum- 
mits ;  but  the  eastern  territory  is  wholly  dissimilar, 
and  forms  one  of  the  finest  portions  of  the  great 
plain  of  Upper  Canada.  This  lake  receives  the 
Maitland,  Severn,  Moon,  and  French  rivers — broad 
streams,  though  not  of  long  course — but  its  chief 
supply  is  from  the  St.  Mary.  Near  its  northwest- 
ern point  a  strait  about  four  miles  wide  comiects 


22  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CaNADA. 

It  with  Lake  Michigan,  entirely  included  within  the 
boundary  of  the  i  nited  Stales.  It  is  equally  deep 
and  clear  with  Huron,  and,  though  nearly  on  a  level 
with  that  lake,  is  not  completely  so,  as  a  constant 
current  sets  from  the  former  into  the  latter,  lake 
Michigan  is  260  miles  by  55,  and  has  a  circuit  of  900 
miles.  The  whole  superficies  of  these  three  lakes 
is  computed  at  72,930  square  miles ;  the  altitude 
of  their  general  surface  is  640  feet  above  the  sea, 
while  their  depth  shows  that  their  bottoms  are  con- 
siderably below  that  level.  This  immense  collec- 
tion of  water  is  on  a  higher  level  by  300  feet  than 
the  basin  of  the  Upper  Mississippi,  and  might  create 
some  idea  of  danger  to  the  fertile  territory  watered 
by  its  streams,  were  that  country  subject  to  earth- 
quakes. 

The  Huron  pours  out  the  surplus  of  its  waters  at 
its  southern  extremity,  thus  carrying  in  that  direc- 
tion the  great  chain  of  communication.  A  channel 
called  the  River  St.  Clair,  after  a  course  of  about 
thirty  miles,  expands  into  the  comparatively  small 
lake  of  the  same  name.  Thence  issues  the  Detroit, 
a  spacious  stream,  celebrated  for  the  beauty  and  fer- 
tility of  the  adjacent  country.  Both  it  and  the  lake, 
however,  are  so  shallow  as  not  to  admit  vessels 
which  draw  more  than  seven  or  eight  feet  of  wa- 
ter.* 

After  running  twenty-nine  miles,  the  Detroit  opens 
into  the  grand  expanse  of  Lake  Erie,  about  265  miles 
long,  and  at  ils  centre  sixty-three  broad,  its  mean 
breadtli  being  about  35,  the  circumference  estimated 
at  soiuevvhat  less  than  658.  Tlie  surface  is  calcu- 
lated to  be  565  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ocean  ; 
making  it  thirty  feet  lower  than  Huron,  and  sixty- 
two  than  Superior,  'i'he  depth  seldom  amounts  to 
270  feet,  and  is  said  to  be  perceptibly  diminishing 
from  the  quantity  of  earthy  matter  carried  into  it 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  133,  134.     Darby,  p.  203-206. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  23 

by  ntimerous  rivers.  The  difficulties  of  the  naviga- 
tor are  increased  by  the  want  of  harbours  and  an- 
chorage, as  well  as  by  the  projecting  jjromontories, 
wiiich  render  a  frequent  change  of  course  necessary. 
Th(i  direction  of  the  great  water-communication, 
which,  from  the  head  of  Lake  Huron,  has  been  near- 
ly due  south,  chanffes  here  to  the  northeast,  till  it 
opens  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  coasts, 
almost  equally  divided  between  the  British  and 
Americans,  are  generally  very  fertile.  Lake  Erie 
has  acquired  a  peculiar  importance,  from  having 
become  the  main  centre  of  inland  navigation.  The 
two  great  canals  reaching  from  it  to  the  Hudson  on 
one  side,  and  the  Ohio  on  the  other,  render  it  a  me- 
dium of  communication  between  the  Atlantic,  the 
Mississippi,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  VVelland 
canal  and  river,  joining  it  to  the  Ontario,  form  a 
channel  by  which  it  is  expected  that  a  part  even  of 
the  produce  of  the  United  States  will  be  henceforth 
transmitted.* 

The  outlet  of  Lake  Erie,  at  its  northeastern  point, 
is  the  Niagara  Channel,  which,  after  pursuing  its 
course  ihirly-three  miles  and  a  half,  opens  into  Lake 
Ontario.  In  its  progress  it  forms  those  stupendous 
falls  which  have  no  equal  in  the  world,  and  will  be 
afterward  described.  The  waters,  in  passing  to  On- 
tario, are  calculated  to  fall  334  feet ;  this  lake  be- 
ing so  much  lower  than  Erie,  and,  consequently,  only 
231  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Atlantic. 

Ontario,  the  smallest  of  the  great  lakes,  extends 
almost  due  east,  with  some  inclination  northward ; 
it  is  172  miles  long,  5dk  broad,  and  about  467  in 
circumference.  The  depth  of  water  varies  from 
15  to  300  feet ;  and  in  the  middle,  a  line  of  300 
fathoms  has  been  let  down  without  reaching  the 
bottom.     The  whole  area  of  the  five  last  noticed 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  1.^4-137.  Darby,  p.  20G-208.  Gourlay, 
Stat  sucal  Account  of  Upper  Canada  (2  vols.  8vo,  London,  1822i, 
vol,  ii.,  p.  53. 


24  GENERAL    VIEW    OP    CANADA. 

lakes  cannot  be  less  than  80,000  square  miles.* 
The  banks  are  generally  level,  though  a  ridge  of 
moderate  height  rises  at  some  distance  from  its 
western  and  northwestern  shores.  They  are  for 
tlie  most  part  covered  with  wood,  though  now  vari- 
egated witli  partial  and  increasing  cultivation.  To- 
ronto and  Kingston  on  the  British,  and  Sackett's 
Harbour  on  the  American  side,  are  excellent  sta- 
tions, in  which  fleets  have  been  constructed,  inclu- 
ding ships  of  the  largest  size.  There  are  several 
small  islands  at  the  eastern  extremity,  of  which  the 
principal  is  named  Grand  Isle.  The  long  and  wind- 
ing bay  of  Quinte,  to  the  west  of  Kingston,  encloses 
a  very  beautiful  and  fertile  peninsula.f 

From  the  eastern  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario  is- 
sues the  stream  which  bears  now,  for  the  first 
time,  the  name  of  St.  Lawrence,  though  it  has  also 
been  called  Iroquois  and  Cataraqui.  Its  channel  is 
here  so  spacious  that  it  is  called  the  Lake  of  the 
Thousand  Islands.  The  vast  number  implied  in  this 
name  was  considered  a  vague  exaggeration,  till  the 
commissioners  employed  in  fixing  the  boundary 
with  the  United  States  actually  counted  them,  and 
found  that  they  amounted  to  1692.  They  are  of 
every  imaginable  size,  shape,  and  appearance  ;  some 
barely  visible,  others  covering  fifteen  acres  ;  but,  in 
general,  their  broken  outline  presents  the  most  pic- 
turesque combinations  of  wood  and  rock.  The  nav- 
igator, in  steering  through  them,  sees  an  ever-chan- 
ging scene,  which  reminded  an  elegant  writer  of  the 
Happ}'  Islands  in  the  Vision  of  Mirza.  Sometimes 
he  is  enclosed  in  a  narrow  channel ;  then  he  dis- 
covers before  him  twelve  openings,  like  so  many 
noble  rivers  ;  and,  soon  after,  a  spacious  lake  seems 
to  surround  him  on  every  side. J 

951  -d  '11  lOA  'a^jdipnog      gf-  -d  '(SS8I  'qSjnquipg 
'uoi}i.)a  puooas  'OAg)  Bp'jUBy  iadilQ  jo  saqojiijjs  s^uosiMOfi '% 

■ece-eeS  'd  '-n  -Ioa  iztsi  •MSjnquip'j  'oAg  8(0* 
e)  Bouauiy  qsijua  'JoBaj^.j^      i^^    d  '  i    [oa  'an^iqanog  + 

'PS  '"F— M-JOA 
•jAQfi  JO  ajEjg  aq;  jo  aatjins  iBioijjadns  aqi  a^qnop  ifjaBa^  , 


GENERAL   VIEW    OF    CANADA.  25 

At  the  end  of  this  rcMcli  the  St.  Lawrence  is  ob- 
structed by  an  island  in  the  centre,  producing  what 
is  termed  the  Long  Sault.  The  stream,  rushing 
through  a  narrow  passage  on  each  side,  hurries  on 
the  bark  with  dangerous  velocity;  and  the  two  cur- 
rents, meeting  at  the  lower  end,  dash  against  each 
other,  forming  what  is  called  the  Big  Pilcii.  The, 
river  then,  expanding  to  the  breadth  of  more  than 
five  miles,  is  named  the  Lake  of  St.  Francis.  At 
its  termination  begins  a  succession  of  very  formida- 
ble rapids,  named  the  Coteau  du  Lac,  the  Cedars, 
the  Split  Rock,  and  the  Cascades,  which,  continu- 
ing about  nine  miles,  completely  interrupt  the  navi- 
gation for  vessels  of  even  moderate  dimensions. 
The  hardy  Canadian  boatmen  indeed  contrive,  with 
poles  ten  feet  in  length,  to  force  through  certain  flat- 
bottomed  barks  of  from  six  to  twenty  tons.  Huge 
rafts  of  timber  are  also  seen  descending  the  current ; 
but  passengers  by  steam  leave  the  vessel  at  one  end 
of  the  declivity  anrl  re-embark  at  the  other.  Great 
operations,  however,  are  now  in  progress  to  over- 
come these  obstacles,  and  to  secure  a  safe  naviga- 
tion to  the  inland  seas. 

Below  these  rapids  the  river  spreads  out  into 
Lake  St.  Louis,  near  which  there  is  a  beautiful  fall 
bearing  the  same  name.  This  impediment  to  nav- 
igation has  been  recently  overcome  by  a  canal  call- 
ed La  Chine.  The  St.  Lawrence  now  receives  an 
important  accession  by  the  influx  of  the  great  stream 
of  the  Ottawa  from  the  northwest,  after  a  course  of 
about  450  miles,*  through  an  extensive  plain,  gener- 
ally very  fertile,  and  covered  with  magnificent  for- 

♦  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  187.  According  to  Mr.  M'Gregor, 
Brit,  .^mer.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  525,  this  river  "  is  said  to  have  its  source 
near  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  to  traverse  in  its  windings  a  dis- 
tance of  2-500  miles."  He  adds,  that  it  certainly  flows  ten  or 
twelve  hundred  miles  before  joining  the  St.  Lawrence.  We 
have  no  hesitation,  however,  in  jireCerring  the  sober  statement 
of  Bouchette  to  these  extravagant  estimates 


26  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

ests.  These  rivers  at  their  junction  form  several 
large  islands,  on  the  principal  of  which  is  built  the 
city  of  Montreal.* 

Below  that  place  the  St.  Lawrence  presents  a 
magnificent  expanse,  navigable  for  vessels  of  500 
tons,  thus  giving  to  the  town  just  named  all  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  seaport,  although  560  miles  from  the 
sea.  About  forty-five  miles  farther  down,  indeed, 
where  it  widens  into  the  Lake  of  St.  Peter,  it  be- 
comes somewhat  shallow,  and  allows  only  a  narrow 
passage  to  large  ships.  Again,  about  ninety  miles 
nearer  the  ocean,  the  rocks  forming  the  Richelieu 
rapids  so  contract  the  channel  as  to  render  it  unsafe 
unless  at  particular  periods  of  the  tide.  At  Quebec 
it  narrows  to  1314  yards;  yet  the  navigation  is  com- 
pletely unobstructed,  while  there  is  formed  near  the 
city  a  capacious  harbour.  At  260  miles  above  its 
embouchure,  it  is  still  eighteen  miles  in  breadth. 
About  twenty-one  miles  below  Quebec,  its  waters, 
beginning  to  mingle  with  those  of  the  sea,  acquire 
a  saline  taste,  which  increases  till,  at  Kamouraska, 
seventy-five  miles  nearer  its  mouth,  they  become 
completely  salt.  Custom,  with  somewhat  doubtful 
propriety,  considers  the  river  as  continued  down  to 
the  island  of  A  nticosti,  and  bounded  by  Cape  Rosier 
on  the  southern,  and  Mingan  Settlement  on  the 
northern  shore. f 

In  considering  the  St.  Lawrence  as  one  of  the 
grand  hydrographic  features  of  the  globe,  different 
views  have  been  taken.  Some  authors  consider  it 
as  originating  in  Lake  Ontario,  and  view  the  inte- 
rior channels  as  only  the  means  of  uniting  one  lake 
with  another.  This  will  give  to  it  a  course  of  about 
700  miles.  Yet  when  it  is  considered  that  there  is 
a  continued  current  from  the  most  remote  tributary 
of  Lake  Superior  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  we 
may  seem  justified  in  regarding  it  as  an  entire  river 

*   Boachette,  vol.  i.,  p.  156,  162-211. 
t  lb.  ibid.,  p.  164-169. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  27 

extending  upward  of  2000  miles,  and  forming  one  of 
the  most  important  water-communications  on  the 
face  of  the  earth. 

In  this  river-system  a  striking  and  pecuhar  class 
of  objects  is  exhibited  on  a  grander  scale  than  in 
any  other  region  ;  we  mean  the  waterfalls.  These 
are  not,  indeed,  like  such  as  descend  from  alpine 
precipices,  distinguished  by  height  or  by  the  pictu- 
resque forms  of  the  rocky  cliffs  amid  which  they  are 
precipitated ;  but  while  the  latter  are  usually  mere 
streamlets,  the  others  are  mighty  rivers,  swelled  to 
their  full  magnitude,  and  pouring  the  entire  volum« 
of  their  waters  into  the  abysses  beneath. 

Among  these  cataracts  of  Northern  America  there 
is  one  which  stands  without  a  rival — Niagara.  Here 
an  immense  river,  after  receiving  the  surplus  waters 
of  four  extensive  lakes,  projects  them  downward  in 
a  united  mass.  In  general,  when  such  large  streams 
are  obstructed  by  rocky  barriers,  they  force  their 
way  thrnugh  them  in  a  number  of  narrow  channels, 
with  noise  and  impetuosity,  but  without  any  con- 
siderable descent.  There  is  scarcely  another  in- 
stance where  a  sea-like  flood,  having  brought  its 
whole  weight  of  waters  to  the  brink  of  a  lofty  pre- 
cipice, throws  them  down  in  one  unbroken  sheet. 
The  fall  of  the  Rhine  at  Schaff  hausen  alone,  though 
without  either  its  height  or  volume  of  water,  bears 
some  resemblance  to  that  of  Niagara,  which  is  ac- 
knowledged to  be  not  only  the  greatest  of  cataracts, 
but,  according  to  the  general  opinion  of  travellers, 
the  subiimest  object  on  earth.  The  ocean  and  the 
gigantic  steeps  of  the  Andes  or  the  Himmaleh  may 
include  scenery  of  more  varied  magnificence,  but 
probably  exhibit  no  single  spectacle  so  striking  and 
so  wonderful. 

Without  attempting  to  convey  to  the  reader's  mind 
any  image  of  this  stupendous  scene,  which  perhaps 
no  pen  can  ever  accomplish,  we  will  simply  state 
the  elements  in  which  its  grandeur  appears  to  con- 


28  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

sist.  Several  objects  that  compose  the  chief  beau- 
ty of  other  celebrated  waterfalls  are  altogether  want- 
ing. There  are  no  cliffs  reaching  to  an  extraordi- 
nary height,  crowned  with  trees,  or  broken  into  pic- 
turesque and  varied  forms ;  for,  though  one  of  the 
banks  is  wooded,  the  forest-scenery,  on  the  whole, 
is  not  imposing.  The  accompaniments,  in  short, 
rank  here  as  nothing.  There  is  merely  the  display, 
on  a  scale  elsewhere  unrivalled,  of  the  phenome- 
na appropriate  to  this  class  of  objects.  There  is  the 
spectacle  of  a  falling  sea,  the  eye  filled  almost  to 
its  utmost  reach  by  the  rushing  of  mighty  waters. 
There  is  the  awful  plunge  into  the  abyss  beneath, 
and  the  reverberation  thence  in  endless  lines  of 
foam,  and  in  numberless  whirlpools  and  eddies. 
There  are  clouds  of  spray  that  fill  the  whole  atmo- 
sphere, amid  which  the  most  brilliant  rainbows,  in 
rapid  succession,  glitter  and  disappear.  Above  all, 
there  is  the  stupendous  sound,  of  the  peculiar  char- 
acter of  which  all  writers,  with  their  utmost  eflTorts, 
seem  to  have  vainly  attempted  to  convey  an  idea. 
Bouchette  describes  it  as  "grand,  commanding,  and 
majestic,  filling  the  vault  of  heaven  when  heard  in 
its  fulness ;"  as  "  a  deep  round  roar,  an  alternation  of 
muffled  and  open  sounds,"  to  which  there  is  nothing 
exactly  corresponding.  He  mentions  the  report 
made  from  a  little  distance  by  a  great  naval  battle 
like  that  of  the  Nile ;  but  this  few  can  have  experi- 
enced. Captain  Hall's  similitude  to  the  ceaseless, 
rumbling,  deep,  monotonous  sound  of  a  vast  mill, 
though  not  very  poetical,  is  generally  considered 
as  approaching  nearest  to  reality.  The  diffusion 
of  the  noise  is  impaired  by  the  rocky  heights  that 
enclose  the  fall,  and  perhaps  even  by  the  volume 
of  spray  which  it  throws  up  around  itself.  It  varies 
also  according  to  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  and 
the  direction  of  the  wind  :  but,  under  favourable  cir- 
cumstances, it  reaches  to  Toronto,  across  Lake  On- 
tario, distant  forty-six  miles.  Some  have  thought 
that  the  absence  of  the  accompaniments  above  al- 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CANADA.       29 

luded  to  impairs  its  effect ;  while  others,  perhaps 
with  reason,  conceive  that  these  would  only  distract 
the  attention  from  the  one  great  object;  and  that 
this  is  more  deeply  felt  when  there  is  nothing  seen 
but  the  cataract  itself,  "no  sound  but  its  eternal 
roar." 

The  Niagara  Channel,  as  already  mentioned,  ex- 
tends from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  and  the  falls 
are  situated  twenty  miles  from  the  former  and  thir- 
teen from  the  latter.  Being  occasioned  only  by  a 
general  and  not  very  great  descent  in  the  level  of  the 
land,  there  is  nothing  in  the  country  around  to  indi- 
cate the  vicinity  of  such  a  striking  phenomenon. 
From  the  Erie  boundary,  in  particular,  the  approach 
is  along  a  smooth  though  elevated  plain  ;  through 
which  the  river,  about  a  mile  in  breadth,  flows  tran- 
quilly, bordered  by  fertile  and  beautiful  banks,  and 
enclosing  a  large  island.  The  deep,  awful  sound, 
however,  is  soon  heard,  and  becomes  gradually  loud- 
er. Yet  nothing  appears  till  about  a  mile  above  the 
fall,  when  the  water  begins  to  ripptS,  and  a  little  be- 
low is  broken  into  a  series  of  dashing  and  foaming 
rapids,  which  form  a  grand  spectacle.  The  stream 
then  becomes  more  tranquil,  though  rolling  with 
prodigious  rapidity,  till  it  reaches  the  brink  of  the 
great  precipice. 

!  Thefallitselfisdivided,bytheinterventionofGoat 
/  Island,  into  two  unequal  portions.  The  one  called 
the  British,  or  Horseshoe,  according  to  the  most 
careful  estimate,  is  2100  feet  broad,  and  149  feet  9 
inches  high.  The  other  or  American  fall  is  only 
1140  feet  broad,  and,  even  in  proportion  to  this  infe- 
rior dimension,  pours  a  much  smaller  body  of  water. 
It  has,  indeed,  some  picturesque  beauty,  being  lined 
by  a  wooded  shore,  and  diversified  by  a  number  of 
small  islands  covered  with  stunted  cedar.  Its  height 
is  about  164  feel.  The  British  one,  however,  being 
that  in  which  the  phenomenon  is  presented  on  the 
greatest  scale,  simple  aii(i  without  accompaniment, 

C 


so  GENERAL    View    OF    CANADA. 

is  properly  the  fall.  The  most  approved  point  of 
view  is  from  the  Table  Rock,  that  reaches  close  to 
the  waters,  and  forms  part  of  the  very  ledge  over 
wliich  they  descend.  A  daring  visiter  may  even, 
by  lying  flat  on  his  face,  stretch  out  his  hand  and 
plunge  it  into  the  descending  surge ;  and  it  is  from 
this  station  that  the  nearest  view  of  the  cataract 
is  obtained,  and  its  vastness  is  most  distinctly  per- 
ceived. An  elevated  spot  behind  affords  a  more  ex- 
tensive but  less  imposing  survey,  which,  however, 
combines  the  surrounding  scenery.  Nearly  half 
a  mile  below,  at  a  small  chasm  in  the  cliff,  a  spi- 
ral staircase  leads  the  traveller  down  towards  the 
water,  and  a  narrow,  slippery  path,  amid  fragments 
of  rock,  conducts  him  up  to  the  foot  of  the  fall,  and 
even  a  little  above.  To  look  from  beneath  on  this 
immensity  of  rushing  waters  produces  a  peculiar  sen- 
timent of  mingled  grandeur  and  terror.  Some  trav- 
ellers even  venture  into  a  singular  hollow  formed 
beneath  the  rocky  ledge,  where  they  may  see  in 
front  the  descending  flood,  and  be  wet  only  by  its 
spray.  Hennepin  asserts  that  four  coaches  might 
be  driven  abreast  through  this  awful  chasm ;  and 
several  individuals  have  penetrated  this  recess  to 
the  distance  of  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet. 
Goat  Island,  as  already  observed,  divides  the  two 
falls,  interposing  between  them  its  perpendicular  fa- 
cade, 984  feet  in  breadth.  Its  length,  extending  up 
the  river,  is  nearly  half  a  mile.  It  was  unapproach- 
ed  by  human  foot  till  Mr.  Porter,  proprietor  of  ex- 
tensive mills  at  Manchester,  on  the  American  side, 
contrived,  by  sinking  strong  caissons  in  the  water, 
flowing  perhaps  eighteen  miles  an  hour,  to  rear  a 
wooden  bridge  1000  feet  long,  and  practicable  for 
carriages.  A  road,  now  formed  round  the  island, 
commands  very  fine  views  both  of  the  fall  and  the 
rapids  above.  This  spot  is  richly  clothed  with  trees, 
among  which  the  light  foam  is  often  seen  flying. 
It  is  described  as  a  little  Elysium  amid  the  chaos  ol 
the  surrounding  elements. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  31 

The  waters  projected  down  this  awful  steep  con- 
tinue for  some  space  in  a  state  of  violent  agitation; 
yet  a  ferry  has  Ijeen  established  about  half  a  mile 
below,  across  which  the  passenger  is  wafted  over 
the  heaving  current  without  serious  danger.  The 
high  level  of  the  countiy  extends  seven  or  eight 
miles  lower,  to  Queenston  and  Lewiston,  for  which 
space  the  Niagara  rolls  through  a  rocky  channel, 
between  high  and  steep  banks,  its  breadth  contract- 
ed to  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  Somewhat  more  than 
half  way  down,  high  cliffs,  encircling  the  current  in 
a  peculiar  manner,  cause  it  to  wheel  round  with  an 
impetuous  violence,  which  would  instantly  destroy 
any  object  that  should  come  within  its  action.  This 
is  called  the  Whirlpool.  Below  Queenston  the 
ground  sinks  by  a  steep  descent  to  the  level  of  the 
Ontario  basin.  The  river  then  emerges,  and  again 
rolls  a  smooth  stream  between  level  and  cultiv.^ed 
banks.* 

This  great  fall  has  excited  an  additional  interest 
from  the  remarkable  change  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  as  to  its  position.  It  is  believed  that  the  im- 
petuous waters,  wearing  away  the  rock  over  which, 
they  descend,  are  gradually  removing  the  catarac 
higher  up  the  river.  By  this  process  it  is  said  to 
have  receded  from  a  point  between  Queenston  and 
Lewiston,  to  which,  as  already  observed,  the  high 
level  of  the  country  continues,  and  to  have  excava- 
ted the  present  deep  and  narrow  channel  more  than 
seven  miles  in  length.  Upon  this  point  geologists 
and  travellers  seem  generally  agreed,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  as  to  the  rate  at  which  the  change 
proceeds.  Mr.  Gourlay,  long  a  resident,  says  the 
oldest  inhabitants  think  that  the  Great  Fall  has  re- 
ceded '•'■  severnl  ■paces.'"'  Mr.  M'Gregor  mentions  an 
estimate  which  fixes  this  recession  at  eighteen  feet 

*  Bouchelte,  vol.  i.,  p.  138-146.  Howison,  p.  10;=i-121.  liar 
by,  p.  211-213.  Stnart,  Three  Years  in  North  Ainenca  (2  vols. 
8vo,  2d  edit.,  Edinburgh,  1833),  vol.  ii.,  p.  142,  143. 


32  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

during  the  thirty  years  previous  to  1810 ;  but  he  adds 
another  more  recent,  which  raises  it  to  150  feet  in 
fifty  years.  Lastly,  Captain  Hall  heard  it  reckoned, 
by  two  persons  long  resident  on  the  spot,  at  150  feet 
in  forty  years.  This  measure,  having  been  adopted 
by  Mr.  Lyell  in  his  recent  worlc  on  geology,  may  be 
considered  as  the  established  belief  on  the  subject.* 

It  is  not  without  particular  diffidence  that  we  op- 
pose a  conclusion  thus  almost  unanimously  formed 
by  the  most  eminent  writers.  Yet  we  think  we  can 
state  facts,  of  which  they  were  apparently  not 
aware,  and  which  seem  completely  to  refute  the 
supposition  that  any  considerable  change  has  taken 
place,  or  is  perceptibly  in  progress,  as  to  the  site  of 
this  extraordinary  object. 

We  possess  two  early  descriptions  of  these  falls; 
one  by  Father  Hennepin  in  1679,  very  nearly  160 
years  ago,  illustrated  by  a  plate  ;  the  other  by  Charle- 
voix in  17"21.  Now,  on  comparing  these  delineations 
with  the  best  accounts  given  by  recent  travellers, 
it  appears  impossible  to  discover  any  sensible  dif- 
ference betvveen  them.  In  answer  to  this,  it  may 
indeed  be  asserted,  that  the  cataract,  wearing  away 
its  rocky  ledges  in  an  equable  manner  throughout, 
may  have  considerably  changed  its  place,  yet  retain 
still  nearly  the  same  dimensions  and  aspect. f  But 
this  supposition  seems  precluded  by  the  existence 
in  its  centre  of  one  great  fixed  object,  the  immense 
rampart  of  Goat  Island,  which,  while  it  divides  the 

*  Bouchette,  vol  i.,  p.  146.  M'Gregor,  vol.  ii.,  p.  546.  Hall's 
Travels  in  America  (3  vols.  12mo,  second  edition,  Edinburgh, 
1830),  vol.  i.,p  195.  Lyell'sPrinciplesof  Geology  (4  vols.  12mo, 
6th  edition,  London,  1837),  vol.  i.,  p.  273. 

+  Hennepin,  Nouvelle  Decouverte  d'un  tr^s  grand  Pays  dans 
I'Ainerique  (ISino,  Utrecht,  1697),  p.  44-46,  443-452.  Char- 
levoix, Journal  of  a  Voyage  to  North  America  (2  vols.  8vo,  Lon- 
don, 1761),  vol.  i.,  p.  353-356.  Hennepm,  judging  only  by  the 
eye,  exaggerates  greatly  the  height,  making  it  600  feet,  which 
Charlevoix  corrects.  Boih  agree  as  to  the  appearance  and  rel- 
ative position  of  the  different  objects. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CANADA.       33 

WO  falls,  is  on  a  line  will)  both,  or,  according  to 
Bouchette,  forms  along  with  them  the  chord  of  an 
irregular  arc.  Now  Hennepin's  description,  and 
more  particularly  his  plate,  represent  the  island  as 
dividing  the  falls,  and  standing  every  way  in  the 
same  relative  position  to  them  that  it  now  does. 
But  if  tlie  cataracts  had  changed  their  place  in  the 
manner  supposed,  they  must  have  receded  behind 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  island,  which  would  thus 
have  been  thrown  forward,  and  appeared  in  front  of 
them  in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  if  we  assume 
Captain  Hall's  estimate,  there  must  have  been  a 
change,  since  Hennepin's  dale,  of  600  feet,  or  nearly 
a  furlong,  which  would  have  caused  a  most  con- 
spicuous alteration  in  the  relative  position  of  these 
objects.  Some  may  urge  that  the  lateral  action  of 
the  falling  waters  might  demolish  this  projecting 
front,  and  thus  cause  the  island-boundary  to  recede 
along  with  them.  Such  an  hypothesis  seems  quite 
out  of  the  question  as  applicable  to  this  huge  mass, 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth.  Even  sup- 
posing it  possible,  a  rock  thus  demolished  from  two 
opposite  sides  must  have  been  irregularly  acted 
upon,  reduced  to  a  broken  and  shattered  state,  and 
in  some  degree  to  a  pyramidal  form.  There  ap- 
pears no  agency  which  could  cut  it  down  like  slices 
from  a  loaf,  so  as  to  preserve  always  the  same 
smooth  perpendicular  face  separating  the  two  falls, 
which  it  had  in  1679,  and  continues  to  have  at  the 
present  moment.  No  observer  has  noticed  in  this 
island  any  symptoms  of  progressive  demolition. 
Mr.  Howison  so  little  suspects  such  a  process,  that, 
following  up  the  common  idea,  he  contemplates  the 
period  when  it  will  be  left  "  isolated  in  the  midst  of 
the  river  as  a  colossal  pillar."  From  what  we  have 
stated,  however,  if  any  such  change  were  taking 
place,  it  must  by  this  time  have  afforded  some  mani- 
fest proof  of  its  operation. 
It  may  be  urged,  that  water  acting  with  such  stu- 


34  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

pendous  force  must  produce  greater  changes  than 
we  have  here  supposed.  We  would,  however,  refer 
to  a  fact  which  seems  too  little  noticed  by  geologists, 
yet  which  any  one  who  walks  along  the  seashore 
may  at  once  verify.  Rocks  daily  washed  by  the 
tide  have  their  surface  hardened  and  polished  to  such 
a  degree,  as  in  a  great  measure  to  protect  them 
against  the  action  of  the  waves.  Even  the  loosest 
sand,  when  within  high-water  mark,  acquires  a  com- 
paratively firm  and  smooth  surface.  The  ledge, 
too,  over  which  the  waters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  rush, 
being  beneath  them,  and  not  opposing  any  resistance 
to  their  course,  is  little  liable  to  be  disintegrated 
by  their  action.  We  are  not  aware  of  such  an  ef- 
fect being  produced  on  any  other  cataract,  nor  does 
Mr.  Lyell  refer  to  any,  although  several  falls  are 
known  to  have  existed  from  the  remotest  antiquity. 
The  statements  made  by  the  neighbouring  inhabi- 
tants are  so  vague,  and  differ  so  very  widely,  that 
little  importance  can  be  attached  to  them.  The  only 
changes  which  can  be  considered  well  authenticated 
are  the  occasional  breaking  down  of  the  rocks  in  the 
middle  of  the  great  fall.  Of  this  an  example  oc- 
curred on  the  28th  December,  1828,  when  a  huge 
fragment  fell  with  a  crash  which  shook  the  glass 
vessels  in  the  adjoining  inn,  and  was  felt  at  the  dis- 
tance of  two  miles.  It  destroyed  in  a  great  measure 
the  angular  or  horseshoe  form,  and,  by  rendering 
the  line  of  the  fall  more  direct,  heightened  its  gran- 
deur.* In  1818  there  had  been  a  similar  dislocation 
of  the  Table  Rock,  other  sections  of  which  still  wear 
a  threatening  aspect. f  But  this  change  was  not  pro- 
duced, as  is  commonly  supposed,  by  the  wearing 
away  of  the  rocky  ledge  itself;  it  was  by  the  under- 
mining of  the  bed  of  soft  shale  on  which  it  rests : 
and  hence  the  reason  why  the  hollow  space  already 

*  Hall.  vol.  i..  D.  196.     Mackenzie's  Sketches  of  Canada  (8vo 
London,  1833),  p'  103. 
t  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  142. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  35 

described  has  been  formed  beneath  it  and  behind  the 
descending  waters.  As  this  softer  stratum,  how- 
ever, is  acted  upon  merely  by  the  spray  thrown  back 
upon  it,  the  effects  appear  to  be  both  hmited  and 
partial,  and  the  consequent  changes  to  occur  only 
at  long  intervals. 

Having  treated  the  subject  with  reference  to  the 
term  of  human  life  and  the  common  historical  eras, 
we  feel  little  inclined  to  consider  it  in  its  bearing 
upon  geological  theories.  It  is  only  necessary  to 
observe  that,  admitting  the  deep  chasm  through 
which  the  river  flows  to  Queenston  to  have  been 
excavated  by  its  waters,  it  does  not  follow  that  a 
similar  process  must  still  continue  in  operation. 
Upon  every  mineralogical  hypothesis,  it  is  admitted 
that  the  strata,  which  form  the  crust  of  the  earth, 
were  at  one  time  in  a  state  very  different  from  what 
they  are  at  present ;  having  a  soft  and  yielding 
texture,  produced  either  by  the  influence  of  fire  or 
by  recent  deposition  from  water.  The  action  of  so 
mighty  a  flood  might  then  very  easily,  and  in  a  com- 
paratively short  period,  excavate  such  a  channel. 
But  it  is  unphilosophical  to  apply  reasons,  drawn 
from  so  remote  an  era,  to  a  period  when  the  mate- 
rials of  the  land  have  acquired  that  fixed  and  con- 
solidated form  under  which  they  appear  in  our  days 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  the  most  impor 
tant  and  interesting  particulars  relating  to  the  topog- 
raphy, &c.,  of  this  extensive  country;  and  first  of 
Lower  Canada. 

This  province  has  for  its  eastern  and  northern 
boundaries  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Labrador,  and 
the  high  ridge  which  separates  the  tributaries  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  from  the  rivers  falling  into  Hudson's 
Bay.  The  northern  limit  terminates  about  80°  west 
longitude,  where  a  line  drawn  due  south  to  Lake 
Temiscaming,  on  the  Ottawa,  separates  the  two 
Canadian  provinces.  The  river  just  named  forms 
the  western  boundary  till  it  approaches  Montreal, 


36  GENERAL   VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

whence  a  line  drawn  from  it  due  south  passes 
through  Lake  St.  Francis,  and  extends  for  some 
space  southward  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  The  south- 
ern frontier  is  parallel  to  the  whole  course  of  that 
great  river,  at  a  distance  of  from  fifteen  to  a  hundred 
and  thirty  miles,  and  is  formed  on  the  south  by 
Chaleur  Bay,  New-Brunswick,  and  the  States  of 
Maine,  New-Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  New-York. 
The  precise  limits,  however,  still  remain  dependant 
on  the  important  territorial  question  now  agitated 
between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.* 

This  extensive  province  lies  between  45°  and  52° 
north  latitude,  and  between  57°  50'  and  80°  6'  of 
west  longitude,  making  thus  about  950  miles  in 
length,  and  490  in  breadth.  The  entire  area  is  esti- 
mated by  the  best  authorities  at  205,863  square 
miles,  of  which  not  less  than  3200  are  supposed  to 
consist  of  lakes  and  rivers. f 

The  northern  part  of  this  region  consists  through- 
out of  a  bold,  rugged,  and  rocky  territory,  watered 
by  almost  innumerable  streams  and  torrents,  and 
diversified  by  many  chains  of  small  lakes.  The  soil 
is  generally  unproductive,  and  no  settlements  have 
been  attempted  in  any  part  of  it ;  yet  recent  surveys 
have  discovered  various  detached  spots,  imbosomed 
among  the  hills  or  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  that 
appear  susceptible  of  high  cultivation.  This  de- 
scription of  country  comes  down  and  borders  upon 
the  St.  Lawrence,  along  its  lower  course,  as  high 
as  Cape  Tourment,  only  thirty  miles  below  Quebec. 
It  then  recedes,  and  leaves  between  itself  and  the 
courses  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa,  an  exten- 
sive and  generally  fruitful  plain,  varying  from  fifteen 
to  forty  miles  in  breadth.  Detached  eminences  and 
branches  from  the  northern  mountains  serve  only 
to  variegate  the  surface,  and  give  to  it  a  more  pictu- 
resque appearance. t     On  the  south  of  the  St.  Law- 

♦  See  p.  68.  t  Bouchette,  vol  i.,  p.  173,  182. 

t  Lieutenant-colonel  Bouchette  considers  this  plain  as  ter- 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CANADA.       37 

rence  there  is  a  similar  plain,  not  quite  so  spacious, 
but  somewhat  more  fertile  and  beautiful.  The  high 
lands  cover  only  a  small  portion  of  its  surface,  ex- 
cept in  the  most  eastern  district  of  Gaspe,  which 
presents  throughout  a  rugged  surface  similar  to  that 
of  the  opposite  shore,  tiiough  including  a  much 
larger  proportion  of  good  soil.* 

Lower  Canada,  by  the  census  of  1831,  the  last 
that  has  been  taken,  contained  a  population  of 
511,917.  Its  present  number  of  inhabitants  is  sup- 
posed to  be  not  less  than  660,000.  This  province 
is  divided  into  three  principal  districts,  Quebec, 
Trois  Rivieres,  and  Montreal,  and  two  small  ones, 
Gaspe  and  St.  Francis  ;  which  last,  however,  is  so 
diminutive,  and  its  townships  so  enclosed  by  those 
of  Montreal  and  Trois  Rivieres,  th.it  its  subdivisions 
have  been  included  within  their  counties.  Quebec 
is  divided  into  thirteen  counties:  Beauce,  Belle- 
chasse,  Dorchester,  Kamouraska,  L'Islet,  Lotbiniere, 
Megantic,  Montmorenci,  Orleans,  Portneuf,  Quebec, 
Rimouski,  and  Saguenay.  These  are  subdivided  into 
seventy-nine  seigniories,  twelve  fiefs,  and  thirty- 
eight  townships.  Population  of  this  district  in  1831, 
151,985.  Montreal  comprehends  nineteen  coun- 
ties: Acadie,  Beuharnois,  Berthier,  Chambly,  Lach- 
enaye,  La  Prairie,  L'Assomption,  Missisqui,  Mon- 
treal, Ottawa,  Richelieu,  Rouville,  St.  Hyacinthe, 
Shefford,  Stanstead  (this  county  includes  five  town- 
ships of  St.  Francis),  Terrebonne,  Two  Mountains, 
Vaudreuil,  and  Vercheres.  These  are  subdivided 
into  sixty-three  seigniories,  eight  fiefs,  and  forty-five 
townships,  besides  fourteen  others  newly  formed 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  counties.  The  district  of 
Montreal  had  a  population  of  290,050  by  the  census 

minating,  or,  according  ti  his  order,  commencing  with  the  Gren- 
ville  Hills  on  the  Ottawa  ;  bm  as  the  upper  banks  of  that  river 
are  still  more  level  than  those  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  that  cluster 
seemuigly  can  only  be  considered  a  branch  from  the  great  north- 
em  range. 

*  tJouchette.  vol.  i.,  p.  185,  281-290,  298-304,  324. 


38  GENERAL    View    OF    CANADA. 

of  1831.     Trois   Rivieres    includes   six   counties: 
Ciiamplain,  Drummond,  Nicolet,  St.  Maurice,  Sher- 
brooke,  and  Yamaska;  subdivided  into  twenty-five 
seigniories,  nine   fiefs,  and    fifty-three    townships 
population   56,570  in   1831.     Drummond  is  partly, 
and  Sherbrooke  almost  v.'holly,  composed  of  town- 
ships belonging  to    St.    Francis.      Gaspe   contain 
only  two   counties,  Bonaventure  and  Gaspe,  com 
prising  one  seigniory,  six  fiefs,  and  ten  townships 
population  as  above,  13,31'2.     It  may  be  observed, 
that  large  portions  of  the  three  prmcipal  districts, 
and,  indeed,  the  most  valuable  part  of  Trois  Rivieres, 
are  situated  on  the  south  side  of  the  river.* 

The  subdivisions  above  stated,  founded  upon  the 
feudal  system,  according  to  which  the  French  set- 
tlers were  established,  is  important  to  them  as  con- 
nected with  various  judicial  and  political  arrange- 
ments, but  have  little  interest  for  the  general  reader. 

The  district  of  Quebec  occupies  the  whole  coast 
watered  by  the  gulf  and  river  of  St.  Lawrence,  from 
the  eastern  limit  of  the  colony  to  the  mouth  of  the 
river  St.  Anne,  about  thirty  miles  below  Trois  Ri- 
vieres, and  thence  in  a  direct  line  to  the  northern 
boundary.  The  greater  part  of  this  extensive  sec- 
tion belongs  to  the  uncultivated  portion  of  the  coun- 
try, and  presents  a  chaos  of  mountains,  lakes,  and 
torrents,  tenanted  only  by  wild  beasts  and  a  few 
wandering  Indians.  At  Cape  Tourment,  however, 
it  begins  to  give  place  to  a  tract  of  a  much  more 
pleasing  character;  and  though  still  traversed  by 
rugged  eminences,  it  contains  much  fertile  land, 
which  is  described  as  being  at  once  romantic  and 
beautiful. 

In  the  midst  of  this  fine  landscape  stands  Quebec, 
the  capital  of  British  America.  It  is  seated  on  a 
promontory  stretching  out  into  the  river,  which,  by 
means  of  it  and  Point  Levi  on  the  opposite  side,  is 
narrowed  to  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  though 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  175-181 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CANADA        39 

immediately  below  it  spreads  out  into  a  wide  basia 
Cape  Diamond,  the  most  elevated  point  of  the  city 
is  reckoned  by  an  eminent  traveller  lOOU  leet  high; 
a  proof  of  tlie  fallacious  nature  of  such  estimates, 
«.ince  the  more  accurate  observation  of  Bouchette 
fixes  it  at  345.  Above  a  hundred  feet  lower  is  an 
elevated  plain,  on  vviiich  are  built  the  castle  and  the 
whole  of  what  is  termed  the  upper  town.  Thence 
a  perpendicular  steep  of  above  200  feet  descends  to 
the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence;  and  in  the  narrow 
interval  between  this  precipice  and  the  river  is  the 
lower  town,  the  crowded  seat  of  business  and  ship- 
ping. 

The  scenery  of  Quebec  and  the  surrounding  coun- 
try is  described  by  all  travellers  as  rivalling  in  pic- 
turesque beauty  the  most  favoured  parts  of  the  earth. 
The  navigator  who  ascends  the  St.  Lawrence,  after 
he  has  passed  the  Isle  of  Orleans  and  entered  the 
broad  basin  already  mentioned,  where  he  first  comes 
in  sight  of  this  capital,  is  struck  witli  intense  admi- 
ration. He  sees  its  citadel  crowning  a  lofty  cliff, 
its  castle  and  batteries  overhanging  a  range  of  for- 
midable steeps,  the  river  crowded  with  numerous 
vessels  of  every  form  and  size,  from  the  huge  timber- 
raft  to  the  bark  canoe.  The  fall  of  Montmorenci 
appears  dashing  its  white  foam  almost  to  the  clouds ; 
and  on  each  side  is  a  long  range  of  fertile  and  beau- 
tiful shore.  On  ascending  Cape  Diamond  a  still 
grander  and  more  extensive  panorama  bursts  upon 
his  view,  combining  all  the  boldness  of  rude  with 
the  richness  of  cultivated  nature.  Up  and  down  the 
magnificent  stream  of  the  St.  Lawrence  is  a  reach 
of  more  than  forty  miles,  on  which  sails  almost 
innumerable  are  in  ceaseless  movement.  Below 
is  the  beautiful  Isle  of  Orleans;  while  the  opposite 
coast  is  diversified  by  a  great  variety  of  natural  and 
cultivated  scenery.  To  the  north  appears  the  river 
St.  Charles,  winding  amid  fertile  valleys  and  hills, 
with  villages  hanging  on  tlieir  sides  ;  while  the  pros- 
pect is  closed  by  a  bold  screen  of  mountains.    Mr 


40  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

Weld  prefers  the  views  from  the  upper  town,  wliere, 
though  fewer  objects  are  seen,  they  appear  more 
distinct  and  brilliant.  This  traveller,  after  visiting 
a  great  part  of  Europe  and  America,  gives  to  them 
a  preference  over  everything  that  he  had  observed 
on  either  continent.  Mr  M'Gregor  considers  them 
similar,  but  much  superior  to  those  from  the  castles 
of  Edinburgh  and  Stirling. 

Quebec,  from  its  situation  and  the  care  with  which 
it  has  been  fortified,  is  a  very  strong  town,  and  con- 
sidered the  chief  bulwark  of  Br'tish  America.  On 
the  summit  of  the  lofty  headland  just  described 
stands  the  citadel.  The  rock  consists  of  gray  gran- 
ite mixed  with  quartz  crystals,  and  a  species  of  dark- 
coloured  slate.  About  forty  acres  are  here  covered 
with  works,  carried  to  the  edge  of  the  precipice,  and 
connected  by  massive  walls  and  batteries  with  the 
other  defences  of  the  place.  The  main  body  of  the 
fortress,  however,  consists  of  the  upper  town,  whose 
fortifications  enclose  a  circuit  of  about  two  miles  and 
three  quarters.  The  face  of  the  hill  towards  the 
river  is  so  extremely  precipitous,  that  it  requires 
only  a  common  wall  to  protect  it,  though  the  gate 
leading  from  the  lower  town  is  defended  by  heavy 
cannon,  and  the  steep  approach  by  Mountain-street 
is  enfiladed  and  flanked  by  many  guns  of  large  cal- 
ibre. As  the  declivity  towards  the  interior  and  the 
plains  of  Abraham  does  not  present  the  same  abrupt 
face,  but  descends  by  successive  ridges,  it  has  been 
strengthened  by  a  series  of  regular  works,  including 
ditch,  covered  way,  and  glacis,  with  some  exterior 
defences  to  obstruct  the  approach  of  an  enemy.  It 
seems  probable,  therefore,  that  the  place  would  hold 
out  against  any  attack  till  the  approach  of  the  rigo- 
rous winter  should  compel  the  assailants  to  raise 
the  siege. 

The  upper  town,  which  these  fortifications  en- 
close, forms  the  chief  part  of  Quebec,  and  the  resi- 
dence of  all  the  principal  inhabitants  not  engaged 
in  trade.     It  is  a  tolerably  handsome  old-looking 


GENERAL    VIEW   OF    CANADA.  41 

town ;  the  houses  being  mostly  of  stone,  partly 
roofed  with  tin.  The  streets  are  well  paved,  and 
in  some  instances  macadamized,  but  they  are  much 
too  narrow,  and  the  broadest  does  not  exceed  thirty- 
two  feet.  St.  Louis-street,  the  almost  exclusive 
residence  of  the  fashionable  circle,  has  been  lately 
adorned  with  several  elegaiit  mansions.  The  public 
buildings  are  commodious  and  substantial,  without; 
much  pretension  to  architectural  ornament.  The  ■ 
castle  of  St.  Louis,  a  large,  plain,  baronial-looking 
edifice,  forms  the  dwelling  of  the  governor.  It  com- 
prises a  space  of  four  acres,  once  fortified ;  but  the 
great  extension  of  the  works  has  rendered  its  walls 
superfluous,  and  they  are  allowed  to  go  to  decay. 

The  lower  town  is  a  narrow,  crowded  range  of 
buildings,  extending  along  the  base  of  the  precipice. 
The  spot  on  which  it  stands  is  entirely  the  creation 
of  human  industry  ;  for  originally  the  waves  at  high 
water  beat  the  very  foot  of  the  rock.  Wharves, 
however,  have  been  founded  and  carried  out  into  the 
river,  though  nowhere  farther  than  240  yards ;  and 
on  these  streets  have  been  erected.  So  limited, 
indeed,  is  the  space,  that  the  quarter  beyond  Cape 
Diamond  (communicates  with  the  rest  only  by  a  path 
cut  in  many  places  through  the  solid  rock. 

On  the  inland  side  of  the  fortress,  stretching  more 
than  a  mile  into  the  interior,  are  the  large  suburbs 
of  St.  Roch  and  St.  John. 

The  society  of  Quebec  is  more  gay  and  polished 
than  is  usual  in  colonial  cities,  where  the  pursuit  of 
wealth  forms  too  often  the  sole  object  of  the  inhab- 
itants. Here,  besides  merchants,  there  are  a  num- 
ber of  British  civil  and  military  officers,  and  a  body 
of  French  noblesse,  hving  on  their  domains.  These 
different  classes  do  not,  it  is  said,  always  thorough- 
ly amalgamate.  The  French,  though  often  superior 
in  manners  and  habits,  are  in  some  degree  disdained 
by  the  ruling  people,  which  they  do  not  well  brook. 
Among  the  English  themselves,  the  chief  test  of 


42  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

rank  is  an  introduction  at  the  castle,  without  which 
strangers  will  find  themselves  placed  below  those 
whom  they  would  have  been  classed  above  in  the 
mother  country. 

The  cultivated  country  northward  of  Quebec  does 
not  extend  far,  being  closely  hemmed  in  by  the  range 
of  mountains.  Immediately  westward,  in  front  of 
the  fortifications,  are  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  memo- 
rable as  the  scene  whereon  Quebec  was  gained  by 
the  gallant  Wolfe,  and  whence  only  it  can  be  suc- 
cessfully assailed.  The  summit,  indeed,  is  330  feet 
high,  which  does  all  but  command  that  loftiest  pinna- 
cle on  which  Fort  Diamond  stands.  As  some  secu- 
rity against  this  danger,  four  martello  towers  have 
been  so  placed  as  to  range  over  the  whole  plain. 

Crossing  the  St.  Cliarles,  and  going  eastward,  we 
reach  the  Falls  of  Montmorenci,  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  objects  in  all  America.  They  do  not, 
indeed,  pour  down  that  immense  flood  of  water 
which  renders  Niagara  so  wonderful ;  but  the  height 
is  greater,  being  240  feei,  and  the  stream  descends 
the  whole  of  this  vast  steep  in  one  white  sheet  of 
foam.  It  is  received  into  a  vast  basin,  whence  arise 
clouds  of  vapour  that  display  the  most  brilliant  tints 
of  the  rainbow.  M.  Bouchette  imagines  that  even 
Switzerland,  though  it  contains  much  loftier  falls, 
has  none  which  descend  in  so  unbroken  a  mass. 
He  overlooks,  we  think,  the  Staubbach,  whose 
stream,  however,  is  less  copious  than  that  of  Mont- 
morenci. In  winter,  when  the  falling  waters  con 
geal  into  icicles,  these  accumulate  above  each  other, 
till  they  on  some  occasions  swell  to  an  amazing 
magnitude,  and  present  a  most  curious  spectacle. 

Beyond  Montmorenci,  the  country,  though  some- 
Tvhat  rugged,  continues  to  be  cultivated  and  even 
traversed  by  commodious  roads.  Here  occur  the 
villages  of  Chateau  Richer  and  St.  Anne.  Imme- 
diately after,  it  is  necessary  to  cross  the  precipitous 
mountain  forming  Cape  Tourment,  about  1890  feet 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CANADA        43 

high,  and  the  commencement  of  a  longr  series  of 
similar  heie;lits,  calli'd  "  tlie  Capes,"  which  render 
this  part  of  the  St.  Lawrence  grand  but  desolate. 

The  coast  below  Mai  Bay  becomes  altogether 
wild  and  desolate,  while  a  facing  of  sandhills  to- 
wards the  water  renders  its  aspect  slill  more  dreary. 
This  continues  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Saguenay, 
one  of  the  boldest  features  in  this  remarkable  coun- 
try. It  has  been  traced  upward  only  to  liake  St. 
John,  about  140  miles  from  its  mouth.  That  ex- 
panse, estimated  at  100  miles  in  circumference,  was 
found  by  M.  Bouchette  receiving  large  rivers  from 
various  quarters  ;  but  as  to  their  sources  and  relative 
magnitude  nothing  certain  is  yet  known.  At  some 
distance  below,  sixty  miles  from  the  mouth,  the  Bay 
des  Has  presents  a  magnificent  harbour,  capable  of 
receiving  the  largest  ships,  and  surrounded  by  vast 
tracts  of  fertile  territory.  The  Saguenay  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  great  bulk  two  leagues  above  its 
junction  with  the  Chicoutimi.  About  five  miles 
farther  down,  the  level  character  of  its  banks  ceases, 
and,  to  the  point  where  it  falls  into  the  St.  Law- 
rence, they  are  bold,  steep,  and  rocky,  shooting  up 
sometimes  into  precipitous  cliffs  2000  feet  high, 
thinly  clad  with  fir,  birch,  and  other  trees  of  a 
northern  climate.  The  breadth,  unless  when  it 
spreads  into  small  lakes,  seldom  exceeds  half  a 
mile;  but  the  depth  is  very  extraordinary,  vary- 
ing from  600  to  900  feet.  Upon  joining  the  great 
river  now  mentioned,  here  eighteen  miles  broad,  it 
changes  for  some  space  the  direction  of  the  stream; 
and  presents  the  remarkable  circumstance  that  while 
the  St.  Lawrence  at  this  place  is  only  240  feet  deep, 
the  Saguenay,  above  the  junction,  approaches  to  a 
thousand. 

Below  the  Saguenay  there  is  still  a  coast  pertain- 
ing to  Canada  6(55  miles  in  length,  but  of  a  very  un- 
inviting description.  The  land  gradually  loses  its 
lofty  character,  and  at  Portneuf,  forty  miles  farther 


44  GENERAL    VIEW    OP    CANADA. 

down,  it  presents  only  eminences  of  moderate  ele- 
vation. Beyond  the  immediate  border  it  is  a  deep 
swamp  covered  with  moss ;  while  the  interior,  ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  Indians  and  Esquimaux, 
by  whom  alone  it  is  traversed,  is  composed  of  rocky 
cliflfs,  and  low  hills  scattered  over  barren  plains, 
diversified  with  thick  forests  of  stunted  pines,  and 
checkered  with  small  lake^.* 

Returning  to  Quebec,  and  surveying  the  part  of 
the  province  above  that  capital,  we  discover  an  en- 
tirely different  scene.  The  bold  range  of  the  nor- 
thern mountains  gradually  disappear,  and  the  coun- 
try, first  diversified  by  various  eminences,  afterward 
sinks  into  a  level  plain.  This  tt^rritory  is  traversed 
by  considerable  rivers,  fed  by  the  mountains  and 
lakes  of  the  upper  country,  and  flowing  with  a  full 
and  rapid  current.  These  are  chiefly  the  Portneuf, 
the  Jacques  Cartier,  and  the  St.  Anne,  of  which  the 
last  is  the  largest,  and  at  its  mouth  the  boundary  of 
the  province  begins.  Generally,  this  region  has  a 
smiling  appearance,  comprising  the  concessions,  or 
fiefs  and  seigniories  held  by  the  French  Canadians, 
under  regular  though  not  very  full  cultivation ;  a 
considerable  space  being  usually  left  in  the  rear, 
for  the  mere  purpose  of  supplying  timber  and  fuel. 
Closely  following  each  other,  they  form  almost  one 
continued  village,  with  neat  churches  at  short  dis- 
tances; a  pleasing  though  not  varied  scene. 

The  district  of  Trois  Rivieres,  extending  from 
the  mouth  of  the  St.  Anne  to  the  upper  part  of  Lake 
St.  Peter,  is  less  important  and  populous  than  the 
two  others  ;  yet  it  embraces  a  great  extent  of  fertile 
land,  though  chiefly  on  the  southern  side  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  The  principal  town,  bearing  the  appel- 
lation of  the  district,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  St. 
Maurice,  a  large  tributary  stream,  which,  being  di- 
vided by  islands  into  three  branches,  at  first  sup- 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  168,  169,  263-294.  M'Gregor,  vol.  u., 
p.  467-470. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  4/") 

fosed  to  be  distinct,  has  given  this  name  to  the 
place.  It  was  founded  in  1618,  in  contemplation  of 
its  becoming  the  main  emporium  of  the  fur-trade; 
but  since  that  traffic  has  been  extended  into  the 
more  nnnote  regions  of  America,  Montreal  was 
l')und  a  much  more  convenient  station,  and  has  ab- 
sorbed it  almost  entirely.  The  town,  in  1825,  con- 
tained 2453  inhabitants,  and  was  supposed,  in  1831, 
to  have  increased  to  about  4000. 

The  rural  districts  of  Trois  Rivieres,  so  far  as 
they  lie  northward  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  form  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  same  kind  of  territory,  already  de- 
scribed as  stretching  from  Quebec,  and  in  general 
flatter,  and  capable  of  more  uniform  cultivation. 
To  the  westward,  espe;-ially  in  ascending  the  river, 
it  presents  a  succession  of  flourishing  settlements 
and  gay  villages,  occurring  every  eight  or  nine  miles. 

The  district  of  Montreal,  if  not  the  most  exten- 
sive in  Lower  Canada,  is  at  least  that  which  con- 
tains the  greatest  proportion  of  valuable  land. 
Commencing  at  the  western  boundary  of  Trois  Ri- 
vieres, it  extends  along  the  St.  Lawrence,  but  in 
that  direction  terminates  where  Upper  Canada  be- 
gins, not  far  above  the  capital.  It  shoots,  however, 
a  long  branch  up  the  Ottawa,  embracing  all  the 
northern  bank  of  that  river,  till  it  is  bounded,  along 
with  the  lower  province,  by  Lake  Temiscaming.* 

Montreal,  the  chief  town  in  this  district,  though 
not  ranking  as  a  capital,  is  equal  to  Quebec  in 
magnitude,  and  superior  in  commercial  importance. 
Its  greatness  is  likely  to  increase,  from  its  favour- 
able situation  and  the  growing  prosperity  of  Upper 
Canada,  of  which,  as  being  the  highest  point  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  which  vessels  of  the  first  class 
can  ascend,  it  must  always  continue  the  emporium. 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  209.  Evans,  Treatise  on  the  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Agriculture  in  Canada  (Supplement,  1836),  p. 
62  Reports  of  Canada  Cojuinissioners  (February,  1837),  Ap 
l)en<iix  ti)  Gener;:.!,  p.  3. 

I.— D 


46  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

The  site  of  this  town  does  not  present  those  bold 
and  grand  features  which  distinguish  the  Canadian 
metropolis,  though  its  beauty  can  scarcely  be  sur- 
passed. The  river,  in  this  finest  part  of  its  course, 
divides  itself  into  two  channels,  enclosing  an  island 
thirty-tvi^o  miles  long  and  ten  and  a  half  broad,  which 
forms  one  of  the  most  favoured  spots  on  earth. 
The  soil,  everywhere  luxuriant,  is  cultivated  like 
one  great  garden,  to  supply  the  inhabitants  with 
vegetables  and  fruits.  These  last  are  of  the  finest 
quality,  and  the  apples  especially  are  said  to  display 
that  superiority  which  so  remarkably  distinguishes 
them  in  the  New  World.  Although  the  island  pos- 
sesses in  general  that  level  surface  which  fits  it  for 
a  thorough  cultivation,  yet  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
northeast  rises  a  hill  550  feet  high,  commanding  a 
noble  view  over  the  fertile  country,  which  is  water- 
ed by  the  several  branches  and  tributaries  of  the  St. 
Lawrence. 

The  city,  built  on  the  southern  border  of  this  fine 
island,  is  not  crowded,  like  Quebec,  into  a  limited 
space,  which  can  alone  be  covered  with  streets  and 
habitations.  It  has  a  wide  level  surface  to  extend 
over;  so  that  even  the  older  streets  are  of  tolerable 
breadth,  and  several  of  them  occupy  its  entire 
length.  The  principal  one.  Rue  Notre  Dame,  con- 
siderably exceeds  half  a  mile  in  extent,  and  con- 
tains many  of  the  chief  public  buildings.  There  is 
an  upper  and  a  lower  town,  though  the  ditference 
of  elevation  is  very  slight ;  but  the  former  is  much 
the  more  handsome  of  the  two.  The  seven  suburbs 
are  not,  as  in  the  older  capital,  detached  and  extra- 
neous, but  on  the  same  level,  and  immediately  ad- 
jacent. Their  streets,  continued  in  the  direction 
of  those  in  the  body  of  the  place,  are  regular,  and 
display  many  handsome  houses.  The  vicinity  is 
adorned  with  beautiful  villas. 

Of  the  public  edifices,  the  new  Catholic  Cathedral, 
completed  in  1829,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  splen- 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  47 

did,  and  is,  in  fact,  superior  to  any  other  in  British 
America.  Its  style  is  a  species  of  Gotiiic  ;  it  is  255 
feet  six  inches  in  length,  and  134  feet  six  inches 
in  breadth.  The  flanks  rise  sixty-one  feet  above 
the  terrace ;  and  there  are  six  lowers,  of  which  tiie 
three  belonging  to  the  main  front  are  220  feet  high. 
It  is  faced  with  excellent  stone,  and  roofed  with  tin. 
The  principal  window  is  sixty-four  feet  in  height, 
and  thirty-two  broad.  On  the  roof  has  been  formed 
a  promenade  seventy-six  feet  by  twenty,  elevated 
120  feet,  and  commanding  a  most  delightful  view. 
The  interior  contains  1244  pews,  equal  to  the  ac- 
commodation of  at  least  10,000  persons. 

The  harbour  of  Montreal  does  not  seen  to  have 
received  all  the  attention  which  its  importance  mer- 
its. It  is  somewhat  confined,  and  has  no  wharfage, 
though  close  to  the  bank  in  front  of  the  town  is  a 
depth  of  fifteen  feet,  sufficient  for  the  largest  vessels 
which  ascend  to  this  point.  Its  chief  disadvantage 
consists  in  two  shoals,  and  in  the  rapid  of  St.  Mary's, 
about  a  mile  below,  which  vessels  often  find  it  dif- 
ficult to  stem.  Important  improvements  are  now 
contemplated,  and  a  grant  for  the  purpose  has  even 
been  voted  by  tlie  legislature. 

In  considering  the  rural  districts  of  Montreal,  so 
far  as  they  extend  northward  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
we  shall  begin  with  the  tract  reaching  down  to  the 
province  of  Trois  Rivieres.  It  presents  an  aspect 
similar  to  that  of  the  whole  coast  from  Quebec,  but 
still  more  level,  and  also  more  fertile  and  populous. 
It  forms  one  uninterrupted  succession  of  flourishing 
settlements,  with  villages  on  a  larger  scale  than  in 
the  lower  districts.* 

The  portion  of  Montreal  district  on  the  St.  Law- 
rence extends  to  Pointe  au  Baudet,  fifty-five  miles 
above  the  capital,  where  it  meets  the  boundary  ol 
Upper  Canada.     This  tract,  between  the  St.  Law- 

«   Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  o.  209-211,  232,  233. 


48  GEJSERAI.    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

rence  and  the  Ottawa,  forms  the  county  of  Vau- 
dreuil;  it  is  level,  diversified  oidy  by  a  few  gentle 
hills,  and  is  also  very  fruitful.  La  Chine  is  about 
eight  miles  above  Montreal,  where  the  navigation  is 
interrupted  by  the  fall  of  St.  Louis,  to  obviate  which, 
the  fine  canal  bearing  its  name  has  been  erected,  at 
an  expense  of  about  657,000  dollars. 

The  Ottawa  province,  extending  about  350  miles 
along  the  northern  bank  of  that  great  river,  forms,  as 
it  were,  a  very  extensive  wing,  detached  from  the  dis- 
trict and  from  Lower  Canada,  while  the  upper  prov- 
ince extends  opposite  to  it  along  the  southern  bank. 
Thus  the  boundary  between  these  two  territories, 
which  at  first  runs  due  north  as  soon  as  it  strikes 
the  Ottawa,  stretches  first  northwest,  and  then  al- 
most due  west.  This  extensive  tract  is  as  yet 
by  no  means  occupied  or  improved  in  proportion  to 
its  natural  capabilities.  The  numerous  obstacles  to 
the  navigation,  though  now  in  part  removed,  have 
doubtless  greatly  retarded  its  settlement. 

It  now  only  remains  to  notice  the  part  of  Lower 
Canada  southward  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Though 
politically  connected  with  the  northern  portion,  it  is 
so  completely  separated  by  the  broad  expanse  of  the 
river,  and  bears  so  distinct  a  character,  that  we  fol- 
low M.  Bouchette's  example  in  treating  it  separately. 
Though  less  extensive,  and  containing  no  large 
towns,  it  is  in  many  districts  equally  fertile  and  well 
cultivated,  and  the  cities  are  dependant  on  it  for  a 
large  proportion  of  their  supplies. 

The  most  valuable  part  of  this  tract  is  that  at- ^ 
tached  to  th<^  district  of  Montreal.  It  consists  chief- 
ly of  a  very  extended  plain,  almost  completely  flat, 
excej't  ihat  some  detached  hills,  shooting  up  to  a 
considerable  height,  diversify  the  surface.  The 
Richelieu,  the  chief  river,  called  also  Sorel  or 
Chambly,  flows  out  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  is  nav- 
igable more  than  half  way  up  for  steam-vessels  not 
drawing  more  than  four  feet  water.     It  cannot  be 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  49 

compared  with  the  St.  Lawrence  in  grandeur;  but 
Ml  picturesque  beauty  few  tracts  can  surpass  this 
lovely  plain,  covered  with  fruitful  fields,  luxuriant 
meadows,  saiiliiig  villages,  and  variegated  by  tow- 
ering peaks.  The  soil  throughout  is  generally  of 
such  exuberant  fertility,  that  it  bears  the  appellation 
of  the  granary  of  Lower  Canada. 

The  portion  of  this  southern  district  which  belongs 
to  Trois  Rivieres  is  watered  by  fine  rivers.  The 
St.  Francis,  from  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  flows 
due  north,  and,  after  traversing  many  fruitful  dis- 
tricts, falls  into  Lake  St.  Peter.  The  Nicolet  falls 
mto  the  St.  Lawrence,  a  short  distance  above  Trois 
Rivieres,  and  supplies  the  means  of  a  great  inter- 
course with  that  place.  The  Be^ancour  has  falls, 
said  to  be  nearly  equal  in  beauty  to  those  most  ad- 
mired in  Lower  Canada.  Though  this  district  is  al- 
most entirely  rural,  there  are  villages  near  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers;  none,  however,  of  much  con- 
sequence.* 

The  whole  tract  along  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
Richelieu,  extending  inward  from  the  bank  eight  or 
ten  miles,  has  been  granted  in  seigniories,  formed 
into  concessions,  and  cultivated  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, though  many  tracts  in  the  rear  still  remain  cov- 
'ered  by  the  original  forests.  But  a  large  territory  in 
the  interior,  reaching  to  the  American  frontier,  and 
situated  along  the  smaller  rivers,  had  totally  escaped 
the  attention  of  these  original  colonists;  though, 
notwithstanding  occasional  swamps,  it  forms  one  ot 
the  finest  portions  of  Lower  Cauda.  Instead  of  the 
flat  plain  which  borders  the  great  rivers,  it  presents 
an  undulating  surface,  finely  wooded  and  diversified 
by  numerous  streamlets,  which  render  it  particularly 
well  adapted  to  pasturage.  The  climate  is  some- 
what milder  than  in  the  vicinity  of  Montreal,  while 
it  has  the  advantage  of  being  healthy,  and  altogether 

Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  299-306,  350.     Commissicners'  Re 
Appendix  to  General,  p.  1,  2. 


50        GENEHAL  VIEW  OF  CANADA. 

free  from  the  ague,  which  inflicts  various  parts  of 
the  upper  province. 

'I'he  tracts  on  tliis  side  of  the  river  belonging  to 
tlie  district  of  Quebec  embrace  a  great  extent  of 
coast ;  but  the  settlements  do  not  extend  far  into  the 
interior.  The  possession  of  a  portion,  too,  amount- 
ing to  6,400,000  acres,  is  still  under  discussion  with 
the  United  States.*  The  aspect  of  the  territory,  as 
compared  with  the  western,  is  decidedly  bold  and 
hilly,  though  not  mountainous,  as  on  the  opposite 
shore.  This  territory  is  watered  by  numerous  riv- 
ers, full  and  rapid,  though,  from  Demg  closely  hem- 
med in  by  high  land  on  the  south,  they  have  not  so 
f.ong  a  course  as  those  farther  west.  The  principal 
are  the  Chaudiere,  Du  Sud,  St.  Anne,  Quelle,  Green 
River,  Rimouski,  Great  Mitis,  and  Matane. 

The  tract  watered  by  the  Chaudiere,  the  largest  of 
these  rivers,  is  hilly  and  broken,  the  soil  light,  and 
in  some  places  stony,  yet,  on  the  whole,  fertile  ;  and 
the  vicinity  of  the  capital  has  led  to  its  careful  cul- 
tivation. It  derives  very  great  advantages  also  from 
the  Kennebeck  road  leading  from  Quebec  to  Boston, 
and  completed  in  1830,  by  which  its  agricultural  pro- 
duce is  conveyed  to  a  good  market,  and  large  sup- 
plies of  live  stock  transported.  The  fall  on  the 
Chaudiere  forms  one  of  the  most  picturesque  objects 
in  America.  If  it  does  not  equal  the  grandeur  of 
Niagara  and  Montmorenci.  it  possesses  features 
more  interesting  than  either.  The  river  is  here 
narrowed  to  the  breadth  of  betweeu  300  and  400 
feet,  and  the  height  does  not  exceea  130.  It  de- 
scends, too,  not  in  one  continuous  sheet,  but  is  bro- 
ken by  projecting  rocks  into  three  channel?  vhich, 
however,  unite  before  reaching  the  basin  oelow. 
Nothing,  therefore,  is  on  the  same  great  scale  as  in 
its  two  rivals  ;  yet  it  surpasses  both  in  the  magnifi- 
ceiil  forests  by  which  it  is  overhung,  whose  dark  fo. 

*  See  page  68. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA,  51 

rage,  varied  and  contrast(^d  by  the  white  foam  of 
the  cataracts,  produces  the  most  striking  effects. 
These  are  heightened  by  the  deep  and  hollovv  sound 
of  the  waters,  and  the  ch:)nds  of  spray,  wliich,  when 
iiUiinined  l)y  the  sun,  exhibit  the  most  brilHant  vari- 
ety of  prismatic  colours.  A  succession  of  rapids 
for  some  space  upward  displays  a  continuation  of 
the  same  bohJ  and  beautiful  scenery. 

For  a  considerable  space  below  the  Chaudiere, 
the  shores  of  the  St.  Lawrence  continue  fine  and 
weL  cultivated.  The  river  Du  Sud,  in  particular, 
about  thirty-five  miles  from  Quebec,  traverses  a 
plain  so  level  and  fruitful  as  almost  to  dispute  with 
the  Richelieu  the  fame  of  being  the  granary  of  Low- 
er Canada.  About  ninety  miles  below  Quebec,  Ka- 
mouraska,  the  most  frequented  watering-place  in 
Canada,  has  risen  to  great  importance.  Visiters  are 
attracted  by  the  salubrity  of  the  air  and  the  fine 
scenery. 

Below  Kamouraska,  the  country  is  diversified  by 
more  abrupt  eminences,  while  population  and  cul- 
ture become  more  limited. 

The  least  improved  portion  of  this  section  of  Low- 
er Canada  is  the  district  of  Gasp6.  It  forms  an  ex- 
tensive peninsula,  having  on  the  north  the  river,  and 
withe  east  the  gulf,  «f  St.  Lawrence  :  on  the  south, 
the  Bay  of  Chaleur,  penetrating  deeply  into  the  land, 
separates  it  from  New  Brunswick.  Gaspe,  having 
thus  a  circuit  of  about  350  miles  of  coast,  enjoys  a 
favourable  position  for  fishery,  which  has  hitherto 
been  the  chief  employment  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
fishery  is  chiefly  of  cod,  carried  on  by  open  boats, 
with  the  aid  of  a  few  larger  vessels.  Since  1815, 
the  timber  trade  has  become  an  important  resource. 

Having  thus  taken  a  general  survey  of  Lower 
Canada,  we  proceed  to  spenk  of  the  Upper  Province. 
Upper  Canada  comprehends  an  extensive  range  of 
territory,  considered  till  lately  a  mere  appendage  to 
the  Lower  Province,  but  now  fast  rivalling  it  in 


52  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

wealth  and  population.  Its  eastern  boundary,  as 
defined  by  the  proclamation  of  1781,  is  a  line  drawn 
from  the  St.  Lawrence,  a  little  above  Montreal,  due 
north  to  the  Ottawa,  and  then  along  tliat  river  to 
Lake  Temiscaming.  Thence  it  again  stretches  due 
north  to  the  mountainous  border  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  territory,  which  forms  the  northern  limit.  On 
the  south  it  has  the  winding  shores  of  Lakes  Onta- 
rio, Erie,  Huron,  and  Superior,  with  the  channels 
connecting  them,  and  generally  ranked  as  portions 
of  the  great  stream  of  tfie  St.  Lawrence.  On  the 
other  side  of  this  water-boundary  is  the  territory  ot 
the  United  States.  The  western  limit  is  much  more 
vague,  being,  by  the  proclamation  just  mentioned, 
merely  stated  to  he  that  of  "  the  country  commonly 
called  or  known  by  the  name  of  Canada."  M.  Bou- 
chette  seems  to  adhere  most  closely  to  established 
ideas,  when  he  fixes  it  at  the  head  of  the  streams 
which  fall  into  Lake  Superior,  and  thus  extends  it 
to  about  1170  west  longitude. 

This  extensive  province  consists  almost  through- 
out of  one  uniform  plain.  In  all  the  settled  and 
surveyed  portion,  at  least,  there  is  scarcely  an  emi- 
nence deserving  the  name  even  of  a  hill ;  th-^ugh  it  is 
traversed  by  two  ridges  of  considerable  extent, 
which  decidedly  mark  the  diflferent  levels  of  the 
country.  The  principal  one  passes  through  nearly 
its  whole  length  from  southeast  to  northwest,  sep- 
arating the  waters  which  fall  into  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  the  lakes  from  those  which  are  tributary  to  the 
Ottawa.  The  highest  point  is  supposed  to  be  the 
greatest  elevation  of  the  Rideau  Canal,  about  forty 
miles  north  of  Kingston.  It  is  290  feet  above  the 
Ottawa  at  Bytown,  but  only  160  higher  than  the 
level  of  Lake  Ontario.  Towards  these  opposite 
limits  the  surface  descends  at  the  rate  of  only  about 
four  feet  in  the  mile,  exhibiting  to  the  eye  nc  sen- 
sible departure  from  a  complete  plain.  The  high 
ground,  however,  after  passing  the  limits  of  settle* 


GENKRAL    VIEW    OF    CA.VADA.  5J 

rnent,  about  eighteen  miles  northward  of  Lake  Ual- 
sam,  becomes  connected  with  a  somewhat  loftier 
range,  which  continues  in  nearly  the  same  direction 
beyond  Lukes  Huron  and  Superior,  till  it  joins  the 
moniuainous  frontier  of  the  Hudson's  Uay  territory. 
Th"  other  ridge  begins  near  the  eastern  exlremiiy 
of  Ontario,  to  which  it  runs  nearly  parallel,  and  pro- 
ceeds in  the  same  direction  to  a  point  about  twenty- 
four  miles  northwest  from  Toronto,  where  it  sep- 
arates the  tributaries  of  that  hme  from  those  of  Hu- 
ron. It  now  turns  to  the  southeast,  and,  running  be- 
tween Ontario  and  Erie,  crosses  the  Niagara,  form- 
ing its  stupendous  falls,  and  terminating  on  the 
Genesee,  in  the  United  States  territory.  Although 
no  part  of  it  can  aspire  to  llie  appellation  of  mount- 
ain, it  has  a  more  sensible  elevation  thrin  the  former 
ridge,  and  even  rises  into  some  bold  heights. 

The  whole  of  this  territory  is  estimated  to  con- 
tain about  141,000  square  miles,  or  nearly  three 
times  the  extent  of  England.  The  only  portion, 
however,  that  is  yet  surveyed  or  at  all  settled,  is 
that  bounded  by  the  eastern  coast  of  Lake  Huron, 
and  a  line  drawn  thence  to  tlie  Ottawa.  This  is 
estimated  by  M.  Bouchetle  to  contain  about  33,000 
square  miles,  or  :21,000,000  acres.* 

Upper  Canada,  down  to  tiie  period  when  it  was 
conquered  by  Britahi,  was  in  a  very  wild  and  unre- 
claimed condition.  With  the  exception  of  the  small 
location  on  the  banks  of  the  Detroit,  it  contained 
only  detached  posts  at  great  distances,  formed  foi 
military  defence  and  the  prosecution  of  the  fur-trade.  . 
After  the  peace  of  1763,  when  the  possession  of  it 
was  confirdied  to  this  country,  a  proclamation  was 
issued,  fixing  allotments  of  land  to  reduced  officers 
and  discharged  soldiers.  These  grants,  however, 
appear  to  have  been  sought  chierly  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  capitals  and  cultivated  districts,  and  to 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  64-71. 
I.— E 


j4  general    view    of    CANADA. 

hav«  t*,arcely  at  all  extended  into  the  great  forest 
domain. 

The  real  settlement  of  Upper  Canada  took  place 
in  1783,  at  the  close  of  the  first  American  war.  At 
that  time  not  only  a  large  body  of  troops  were  dis- 
banded, but  many  inhabitants  of  the  United  hjtates, 
who  had  adhered  to  Brilani  during  this  unfortunate 
contest,  sought  refuge  within  her  colonies  ;  and  ;is 
these  last  were  generally  in  a  state  of  great  desti- 
tution, the  governineiii  telt  disposed  to  treat  them 
liberally,  and  afford  the  utmost  possible  compensn- 
tion  for  their  losses  and  sufferings.  Witb  this  view, 
the  whole  land  along  the  St.  Lawrence  above  the 
French  settlements,  and  also  on  Lake  Ontario,  to 
and  around  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  for  the  space  of  150 
miles,  was  formed  into  townships,  originally  entitled 
First,  Second,  Third,  but  to  which  regular  names 
were  afterward  attached.  These  settlers  w^ere 
termed  the  United  Evipire  Loyalists ;  and  not  only  re- 
ceived an  ample  supply  of  land,  but  farming  utensils, 
building  materials,  and  subsistence  for  two  years. 
A  farther  engagement  was  made,  that  every  member 
of  their  families,  on  attaining  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  should  have  a  fresh  donation  of  200  acres ;  a 
promise  which  has  been  strictly  fulfilled.  Military 
grants  were  at  the  same  time  bestowed,  at  rates 
varying  from  5000  for  a  field  officer  to  200  for  a 
private  soldier.  These  new  occupants,  many  of 
whom  had  been  accustomed  to  agricultural  labour, 
and  even  to  the  improvement  of  forest  land,  soon 
produced  a  wonderful  change,  and  converted  a  great ; 
extent  of  wilderness  into  fruitful  fields.  On  the  site 
of  Fort  Frontenac  was  founded  Kingston,  which 
gradually  rose  into  a  place  of  importance  At  the 
same  time,  otli^r  emigrants,  in  consideration  of  local 
habits  and  altlchments,  were  settled  upon  the  Ni- 
agara channel,  and  upon  that  part  of  the  Detroit  not 
previously  occupied. 

lu  1791  Upper  Canada  had  attained  to  such  im- 


OENEUAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  56 

portance,  that,  when  Mr.  Pitt  determined  to  bestow 
a  constitution  on  the  colony,  he  formed  this  part 
into  a  separate  government,  giving  to  it  the  name 
of  Upper,  and  to  the  early  sellled-dislricts  that 
of  Lower  Canada.  The  former  was  not  suppo- 
sed, after  all,  to  contain  at  that  time  above  10,000 
inhabitants.  General  Siincoe,  however,  in  1794, 
founded  the  town  of  York,  which  was  fixed  on  as 
the  seat  of  gQVfcrnment,  and  made  the  most  strenu- 
ous efforts  to  encourage  colonists  to  settle  in  the 
neighbourhood.  They  came  in  coitsiderable  num- 
bers, though  chiefly  from  the  United  States.  1\ 
was  not  till  1803  that,  through  the  exertions  of  Col- 
onel Talbot,  emigration  from  Britain  was  com- 
menced on  any  large  scale.  The  result  of  these 
measures  was,  that  in  1811  the  country  was  found 
to  contain  about  9623  persons  paying  taxes.  By  a 
careful  examination  in  regard  to  the  most  populous 
township,  Mr.  Gourlay  estimated  the  tax-payers  at 
one  eighth  of  the  entire  population,  which,  on  this 
principle,  must  have  amounted  to  about  77,000.  A 
vast  additional  impulse,  however,  was  given  at  the 
close  of  the  last  war,  in  consequence  of  the  low  rate 
of  profit  and  wages,  and  the  difficulty  of  finding  em- 
ployment at  home.  The  attention,  first  of  the  la- 
bouring, then  of  the  middling  class,  and  finally  of 
the  government,  was  thus  forcibly  drawn  to  the  re- 
lief which  might  be  obtained  by  removal  to  a  new 
country,  where  the  means  of  subsistence  were  abun- 
dant. These  motives  have  attracted  a  continued 
succession  of  emigrants,  both  individually  and  in 
bodies,  by  whom  the  population  of  the  province  has 
been  most  rapidly  augmented.  In  1824,  a  series 
of  returns,  called  for  by  Parliament,  showed  the 
number  to  be  151,097.  In  1828  a  similar  census 
produced  185,526.  At  the  end  of  1832  the  amount 
had  risen  to  296,000,  and  in  1835  to  336.000.  It  may 
be  observed,  too,  that  these  returns  are  understood 
♦Abe  extremely  defective,  and  the  omissions  numer 


56  GENERAL    VIEW     3F    CANADA 

oiis ;  probably,  therefore,  the  actual  population  of 
Upper  Canada  may  not  fall  materially  short  of 
400,000. 
^  Upper  Canada  enjoys  a  climate  considerably  mild- 
sr  than  that  of  the  lower  province.  The  great  wa- 
ler-coraniunication,  along  which  it  extends,  stretch- 
es upward  from  Montreal  in  a  southwestern  direction 
till  it  reaches  nearly  the  latitude  of  New-York.  M. 
Bouchelte  has  given  a  comparative  table,  from  which 
it  appears,  that  in  the  year  1820,  the  mean  annual 
heat  was  six  and  a  half  degrees  higher  than  in  the 
other  province.  The  extremes,  also,  are  less  se- 
vere ;  for  while  the  mean  of  the  four  winter  months 
is  from  thirteen  to  seventeen  degrees  higher,  that 
of  July  and  August  is  a  little  lower.  Nor  do  the 
seasons  follow  each  other  so  abruptly  as  at  Quebec  ; 
and  hence  a  certain  interval  occurs  between  winter 
and  summer.  In  return  for  these  advantages,  the 
leather  is  observed  to  be  more  variable,  and  there 
are  only  two  months  in  which  sleighing  or  sledge- 
travelling  over  the  hard  snow  can  be  practised. 
Ague,  too,  more  especially  in  the  newly-settled  dis- 
tricts, though  not  fatal,  is  distressing  and  debilita- 
ting. But  the  mildness  of  the  climate  affords  to  the 
farmer  the  important  advantage  that  he  can  sow 
wheat  in  autumn,  which  thus  attanis  a  quality  su- 
perior to  that  of  the  spring-grown  grain,  hither- 
to alone  reared  in  other  parts  of  British  America. 
The  opportunity  of  cultivating  the  finer  fruits  is 
a  less  momentous,  though  a  very  agreeable  circum- 
stance. 

The  soil  of  Upper  Canada,  at  least  within  the 
present  range  of  settlement,  bears  a  very  superior 
character.  Its  fertility,  indeed,  as  will  presently 
appear,  is  not  so  uniform  as  has  sometimes  been 
represented;  yet  there  is  probably  no  tract  of  equal 
extent  in  the  temperate  zone  with  which  it  may  not 
be  advantageously  compared.  It  is  nowhere  mount- 
amous,  nor,  with  very  few  exceptions,  is  it  rocky. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  57 

Considerable  tracts  are  light  and  sandy,  but  few  so 
much  so  as  to  be  absolutely  barren.  The  produc- 
tiveness of  the  country  appears  to  be  cliiefly  inter- 
rupted by  swamps,  which  cover  a  large  space,  both 
in  the  most  eastern  and  most  western  districts.* 

Upper  Canada  is  divided  into  eleven  districts,  sub- 
divided into  twenty-six  counties  and  six  ridings, 
which  altogether  comprise  277  townships.  In  de- 
scribing this  province,  we  shall  follow  the  example 
of  M.  Bouchette,  in  dividing  it  into  three  great  por- 
tions, the  Eastern,  the  Central,  and  the  Western. 
We  must  nevertheless  dissent  from  him  so  far  as  to 
attach  the  Midland  District  to  the  central  part, 
where  it  appears  to  us  clearly  placed  by  nature. 
The  eastern  division  will  then  contain  the  territory 
between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Ottawa  ;  the  cen- 
tral will  have  its  base  on  Lake  Ontario,  and  extend 
north  towards  the  latter  of  these  rivers,  without, 
however,  at  all  approaching  it  as  to  actual  settle- 
ment. The  western  division  composes  an  extensive 
peninsula,  nearly  enclosed  by  Ontario,  Erie,  St. 
Clair,  and  Huron,  anu  the  channels  by  wliich  these 
lakes  are  connected. 

The  eastern  division,  then,  consists  of  four  dis- 
tricts :  Eastern  and  Johnstown  on  the  St.  Lawrence, 
Ottawa  and  Bathurst  on  the  Ottawa.  In  comprised 
in  1835  a  population  of  87,380.  It  is  well  watered, 
not  only  by  the  two  great  rivers,  but  by  several  im- 
portant tributaries,  of  which  the  largest  fall  into  the 
Ottawa.  The  Petite  Nation,  rising  only  about  five 
miles  from  the  St.  Lawrence,  near  Johnstown,  trav- 
erses the  territory  in  a  line  nearly  due  northeast. 
The  Rideau,  the  Mississippi  (quite  distinct  from  the 
ly-eat  central  river  of  that  name),  and  the  Madawaska, 
rise  in  the  Midland  District,  and  flow  in  an  easterly 
direction  till  they  reach  the  Ottawa.     The  only  im 

*  Gourlay's  Statistical  View  of  Upper  Canada,  vol.  ii.,  p.  &- 
14,  i;w,  170,  22-i.  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  76,  88,  89,  J 08- 110,  237 
Martin,  p.  297,  298. 


58  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

portam  tributary  to  the  St.  Lawrence  is  the  Ganan- 
oqui,  which  falls  into  it  near  Lansdown. 

The  soil  of  this  part  of  Canada  has  been  some- 
what variously  reported,  but  appears,  on  the  whole, 
not  so  uniformly  good  as  in  the  more  western  dis- 
tricts. Considerable  tracts  are  sandy,  some  are 
marshy,  and  others  are  broken  and  rocky.  There 
is  not  wanting,  however,  a  very  fair  proportion  of 
fine  land.  The  climate  being  more  northerly  than 
on  the  upper  course  of  the  river,  is  not  so  mild,  and 
the  summers  are  shorter;  yet,  even  in  these  re- 
spects, it  has  the  advantage  of  Lower  Canada.  It 
has  also  the  benefit  of  being  near  Montreal,  where 
agricultural  commodities  can  be  readily  turned  into 
money ;  and  the  produce  of  the  dairy,  with  vegeta- 
bles, fruits,  and  other  articles,  which  elsewhere  can 
be  raised  only  for  home  use,  find  a  value  in  that 
market.  There  is  an  easy  conveyance  to  it  by  the 
rivers,  though  the  roads  in  the  inland  townships  are 
very  defective.  Its  progress,  however,  has  been 
particularly  retarded  by  large  and  improvident  grants 
to  American  loyalists,  disbanded  officers  and  sol- 
diers, or  favourites  of  the  ruling  powers.  Many  of 
these  have  altogether  neglected  their  lots,  and  few 
have  turned  them  to  account  with  that  active  and 
improving  spirit  which  has  animated  the  recent 
classes  of  British  emigrants.  The  military  settlers, 
it  is  said,  generally  showed  themselves  incapable 
of  the  persevering  labour  necessary  to  bring  wild 
land  into  a  productive  state,  and  took  the  first  op- 
portunity of  selling  their  allotments.  Hence  its 
progress,  though  great  and  rapid,  has  not  equalled 
that  of  the  western  districts,  towards  which  the  tide 
of  immigration  has  been  chiefly  directed. 

The  central  portion,  which  we  consider  as  con- 
sisting of  the  Midland,  Newcastle,  and  Home  dis- 
tricts, has  its  base  upon  the  northern  shores  of  Lake 
Ontario,  whence  it  extends  towards  the  Ottawa; 
but,  long  before  reaching  that  boundary,  which,  from 


GENKRAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  59 

the  direction  of  the  stream,  becomes  more  and  more 
distant,  every  trace  of  setUemeiit  disappears  amid 
one  vast  and  pathless  forest.  This  forms  by  far  the 
most  extensive  part  of  Upper  Canada,  and  from  its 
abundance  of  fertile  land  is  extremely  valuable.  Till 
of  late,  however,  it  was  the  least  occupied,  being 
nowhere  cultivated  but  in  the  vicinity  of  the  govern- 
ment stations.  The  eastern  was  nearer  to  Lower 
Canada,  while  the  western  possessed  great  facilities 
for  the  fur-trade,  with  which  view  chiefly  this  upper 
quarter  was  in  early  times  resorted  to.  But  the  tide 
of  immigration  which  has  lately  flowed  into  Canada 
has  directed  itself,  in  a  great  degree,  towards  this 
central  district.  It  was  found  more  fruitful  and  much 
less  occupied  than  the  eastern,  while  it  has  a  near- 
er market  for  its  agricultural  produce  than  the  west- 
ern. Its  increase,  accordingly,  within  the  last  fif- 
teen years,  has  been  astonishing.  The  population 
in  1817  is  estimated  by  Mr.  Gourlay  at  27,753;  in 
1824  it  had  risen  to  53,600;  in  1832  to  115,504;  and 
in  1835  to  124,473.  It  is  watered  by  the  Moira, 
Trent,  and  other  rivers  of  some  magnitude.  This 
last  is  connected  with  a  chain  of  important  lakes, 
at  the  head  of  which  is  the  large  one  named  Simcoe. 
These  waters  afi"ord  considerable  accommodation  to 
the  colonists;  though  they  flow  from  too  short  a 
distance  to  afford  an  adequate  conveyance  if  culti- 
vation were  to  stretch  much  farther  northward.* 

Kingston,  in  the  county  of  Frontenac,  in  the  Mid- 
land District,  was  the  original  capital  of  Upper  Can- 
ada, and,  even  after  the  transference  of  the  seat  of 
government  to  Toronto,  continued  the  most  flourish- 
ing, till  the  agricultural  colonies  formed  in  the  west 
gave  to  the  latter  the  pre-eminence.  It  is  advan- 
tageously built  on  the  site  of  Fort  Frontenac,  at  the 
junction  of  the  St.  Lawrence  with  Lake  Ontario  ;  a 
position  which  has  raises  it  to  considerable  impor- 

»  Boiicheite.vol.  i.,  p.  108.  Govilay,  vol.  ii.,  p.464,  469,  497 
Tables.  1832,  p.  9. 


60  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

tance  as  the  main  entrepot  between  the  lower  and 
upper  province.  Barks  of  from  80  to  nearly  200 
tons  carry  on  an  active  intercourse  with  Toronto, 
Niagara,  and  other  places  on  the  lake  ;  and  magnifi- 
cent steam-vessels  convey  passengers  to  and  from 
those  places.  About  half  a  mile  distant  is  a  low 
peninsula  ending  in  Point  Frederic,  which,  with  an- 
other parallel  one  terminating  in  Point  Henry,  en- 
closes Navy  Bay,  the  depot  for  the  maritime  arma- 
ment formed  during  the  late  war.  On  its  western 
side  is  a  dockyard,  with  other  accommodations;  and 
in  this  inland  station  were  built  some  of  the  largest 
ships  in  the  British  navy.  The  town  in  1833  con- 
tained 4196  inhabitants. 

York,  in  the  county  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Home 
District,  and  which  has  now  assumed  the  Indian 
name  of  Toronto,  is  the  official  capital  of  Upper  Can- 
ada, the  residence  of  the  governor,  the  seat  of  the 
courts  of  justice,  and  the  place  where  the  Parliament 
assembles.  No  town  in  the  province  has  made  so 
rapid  a  progress.  In  1793  M.  Bouchette  saw  the 
spot  covered  with  dense  and  trackless  forests,  on 
the  border  of  which  stood  one  solitary  wigwam.  In 
1794  the  town  was  founded,  and  in  a  few  years  at- 
tained a  considerable  magnitude.  It  remained  long 
inferior  to  Kingston,  and  in  1831  was  supposed  to 
contain  only  4000  inhabitants.  The  great  improve- 
ment, however,  of  the  western  districts,  and  the  ex- 
tensive sales  of  land  made  there,  both  by  govern-' 
mentand  the  Canada  Company,  have  now  rendered 
it  every  way  the  more  important  place;  and  by  the) 
last  accounts  its  population  had  risen  to  9500.  The 
streets  are  spacious,  and  regularly  disposed  at  right 
angles.  The  harbour  is  formed  by  a  lonir  narrow 
peninsula,  enclosing  a  circular  basin  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  affording  spacious  and  secure 
accommodation  for  shipping. 

The  Western  Sectio/i  of  Upper  Canada,  though 
less  extensive  than  those  just  described,  possesses 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  61 

such  advantages  of  soil,  climate,  and  situation  as  ren- 
ders it  fully  equal  to  them  in  value  and  importanot;. 
It  cuHsisis  of  a  long  irregular  peninsula,  enclosed  by 
successive  portions  of  the  great  lake  and  river  chain 
of  Canada.  This  boundary,  beginning  with  the  west- 
ern shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  is  continued  by  the  Niag- 
ara chainiel.  Lake  Krie,  the  Detroit,  Lake  and  Riv- 
er St.  Clair,  and  the  southern  and  part  of  the  eastern 
shore  of  Lake  Huron.  It  terminates  a  little  beyond 
Goderich,  whence,  stretching  across  to  Lake  Onta- 
rio, it  is  met  by  the  Home  District  and  the  Indian 
territory.  Its  surface  is  singularly  level,  scarcely 
containing  any  eminence  that  deserves  to  be  called 
a  hill,  except  in  the  ridge  already  described  as  run- 
ning HI  a  circuitous  line  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Toronto  to  Niagara.  Even  its  heights  seldom  ex- 
ceed 100,  and  never  350  feet.  Besides  that  no  part 
is  very  distant  from  the  grand  line  of  water  commu- 
nication, several  fine  rivers  traverse  the  interior. 
The  most  considerable  is  the  Thames,  which,  rising 
in  the  London  District,  and  running  westward  about 
150  miles  through  a  fine  country,  falls  into  Lake  St. 
Clair.  It  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Chatham, 
fifteen  miles  up,  and  for  boats  nearly  to  its  source. 
P.irallel  to  it  on  the  north,  though  with  a  shorter 
course  of  not  more  than  100  miles,  is  Big  Bear  Creek, 
which  throws  itself  into  one  of  the  branches  of  the 
river  St.  Clair.  Next  to  the  Thames  in  magnitude 
IS  tlie  Ouse,  rising  in  the  Home  District,  and  flow- 
ing in  an  opposite  direction  southeast,  till,  by  a  very 
serpentine  course,  it  reaches  Lake  Erie.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  schooners  about  twenty-five  miles  above 
its  mouth,  and  considerably  higher  for  boats.  The 
Weiland  or  Chippevvay,  nearly  parallel  to  it,  runs 
into  the  Niagara  after  a  course  of  only  fifty  miles; 
but  this  river  has  become  important  on  account  of 
the  canal  cut  from  it  to  Ontario  on  one  side  and  Erie 
on  the  other,  which  has  obviated  those  obstructions 
Vol.  I.— F 


62  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

by  which  the  navigation  of  the  Niagara  channel  is 
rendered  impracticable. 

The  soil  of  this  extensive  tract  is  almost  entirely 
alluvial,  consisting  of  a  black  or  yellow  loam,  some- 
times mixed  with  sand,  and  covered  with  a  thick 
stratum  of  vegetable  mould.  The  forests  are  dense, 
but  not,  as  in  other  quarters,  entirely  uninterrupted ; 
opening  rather,  in  some  places,  into  wide  prairies 
or  expanses  of  natural  meadow.  The  country  has 
by  sanguine  writers  been  described  as  everywhere 
luxuriantly  fertile  ;  and  though  minute  surveys  have 
discovered  light  and  sandy  tracts  of  considerable 
extent,  there  is,  perhaps,  scarcely  a  spot  on  the 
globe  which  it  may  not  rival.  The  climate  of  a 
country  situated  between  the  42d  and  45th  parallels 
ought  to  be  that  of  the  south  of  France;  but,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  peculiarity  in  the  American  continent, 
this  does  not  procure  an  exemption  from  several 
months  of  frost  and  snow.  Still  its  winter  is  con- 
siderably shorter,  and  its  summer  longer  than  in  any 
other  part  of  Upper  Canada. 

Such  advantages  drew  the  attention  of  European 
settlers  to  this  quarter  earlier  than  from  its  distance 
might  have  been  expected,  and  portions  of  it  were 
brought  into  cultivation  when  the  rest  of  Upper 
Canada  was  a  wilderness.  The  French,  when  form- 
mg  stations  for  the  fur-trade  at  its  western  extrem- 
ity, were  tempted  by  the  fertile  banks  of  the  De- 
troit, between  Lakes  Erie  and  St.  Clair,  and  estab- 
lished a  number  of  seigniories  similar  to  those  on 
the  St.  Lawrence  in  Lower  Canada.  At  the  end  of 
the  great  American  contest,  a  number  of  disbanded 
troops  or  banished  loyalists,  who,  in  the  course  of 
military  operations,  had  become  acquainted  w'ith 
the  Niagara  district,  or  to  whose  former  residence 
and  habits  it  was  congenial,  accepted  grants  in  it. 
In  1802,  Colonel  Talbot,  having  formed  the  plan  of 
a  settlement  on  the  most  central  part  of  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Lake  Erie,  obtained  from  government  a 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  63 

grant  of  100,000  acres,  on  condition  of  locating  a 
settler  upon  every  200 ;  whichi  condition  he  has 
successfully  fulfilled.  From  these  causes  the  pop- 
ulation in  1817  had  attained  to  the  estimated  number 
of  34,227,  which  iu  1824  had  risen  to  55,200,  in  1832 
to  101,605,  and  in  1835,  to  124,628.* 

This  part  of  Canada  is  divided  into  four  districts  ; 
Gore,  London,  Niagara,  and  Western. 

With  respect  to  climate,  Canada  exhibits,  in  many 
particulars,  a  striking  dissimilarity  to  Europe.  In 
the  first  place,  the  temperature  is  much  lower  under 
the  same  latitude  ;  and  this  remark  applies  to  the 
whole  of  North  America.  Thus  Quebec,  in  46^ 
49''  N.,  has  also  the  same  latitude  with  Nantes  in 
47^  13'.  Yet  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the 
former  is  41-74°  ;  of  the  latter,  54-68°,  a  difference  of 
nearly  13°.  Edinburgh  and  Copenhagen,  though 
more  than  9°  farther  north  than  Quebec,  exceed  it  in 
mean  annual  heat,  the  one  by  6°,  the  other  by  4°.| 

The  iif'xt  distinction  is  the  great  difference  in  the 
temperature  of  winter  and  summer;  the  cold  of  the 
one  and  the  heat  of  the  other  being  much  more  in- 
tense than  in  those  countries  where  the  annual  mean 
is  the  same.  While  the  medium  temperature  of 
•winter  at  Nantes  is  about  4046°,  at  Quebec  it  is 
14*18°:  but  that  of  summer  is  nearly  identical;  at 
the  first  68-54°,  at  the  second  68-00°.  Nay,  the 
mean  of  the  hottest  month,  which  at  Nantes  is 
70-52°,  at  Quebec  is  73.40°.  The  summer  of  this 
last,  when  compared  to  that  of  Edinburgh,  is  almost 
tropical,  exceeding  it  by  ten  degrees,  and  in  the  hot- 
test month  by  fourteen.  Even  in  London  the  heat 
rarely  attains  83°  ,  whereas  in  Canada,  during  July, 
it   rises   occasionally   20°    higher.^     These   great 

♦  Boachette,  vol.  ii.,  p.  108,  92-96.  Gourlay,  vol.  ii.,  p.  299, 
357,  406,  455      Picken,  p.  177. 

t  Sef  Table  by  Professor  Jamieson,  in  Murray's  F.ncyclop«- 
dia  of  Geography,  p.  164. 

I  Bouchette,  vol,  i.,  p.  337. 


04  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

heats,  however,  leave  the  average  still  much  lowef 
than  ill  European  places  under  the  same  latitude. 

We  do  not  intend  to  enter  here  into  any  discussion 
of  the  theories  formed  on  this  subject,  none  of  which 
seem  yet  to  be  fully  established.  The  influence  ol 
the  winds,  which  blow  chiefly  from  the  northwest, 
over  a  vast  expanse  of  frozen  continent ;  the  position 
of  the  adjacent  ocean,  filled  with  fields  and  islands 
of  ice,  detached  from  the  arctic  shores  ;  the  uncul- 
tivated state  of  the  soil,  covered  with  vast  forests 
and  swamps;  these  have  been  the  chief  causes  as- 
signed for  so  remarkable  a  diff"erence. 

There  prevails  a  general  opinion  that,  since  Brit- 
ish America  has  been  partially  cleared  and  cultivated, 
the  extremes  of  both  summer  heat  and  winter  cold 
have  been  sensibly  mitigated.  Others,  however, 
maintain  that  the  variations  are  casual  and  tempo- 
rary, and  that  the  changes  referred  to  have  as  yet 
taken  place  on  too  small  a  scale  to  produce  any 
marked  eff"ect. 

The  prevailing  winds  in  Canada  are  the  northeast, 
northvvest,  and  southwest.  The  first,  blowing  from 
the  ocean,  brings  rain,  snow,  and  tempest;  the  sec- 
ond, from  a  vast  extent  of  frozen  land,  is  dry  and 
intensely  cold ;  the  last,  from  warmer  regions,  is 
mild  and  agreeable.  In  the  height  of  summer  the 
air  is  often  quite  still,  the  sky  brightly  clear,  and  the 
rays  of  the  sun  beat  fiercely  upon  the  earth.  Tlie 
nights  at  this  season  are  beautifully  transparent. 

Great  and  sudden  transitions  from  heat  to  cold  also 
characterize  this  region.  These  are,  of  course,  pro- 
duced by  changes  of  wind,  occasioning  a  rapid  tran- 
sition from  the  one  to  the  other  of  those  extremes  to 
which  the  whole  continent  is  liable.  The  tropica] 
countries  being  equally  warm  in  the  New  as  in  the 
Old  World,  the  hot  and  coldchmates  are  in  the  former 
nearer  to  each  other,  and  more  apt  to  come  into 
coUisiim.  These  sudden  changes  have  the  effect  of 
'•endering  every  kind  of  atmospheric  agitation,  and 


GENERAL    VIEW    OP    CANADA.  65 

mote  especially  thunder  and  lightning,  peculiarly 
violent. 

The  order  of  the  seasons  also  varies  materially 
fnnu  that  which  prevails  in  Europe.  The  absence 
ol"  -spring  is  generally  incident  to  climates  where  the 
winter  is  very  long  and  severe.  The  moderate  heat 
of  the  advancing  season  appears  absorbed  in  the 
process  of  converting  the  snow  and  ice  into  a  liquid 
stale,  and  can  tlius  act  only  imperfectly  upon  the 
atmosphere.  By  the  time  this  change  is  accom- 
plished, the  suifs  rays  have  become  powerful,  and 
the  summer  is  established.  Scarcely  is  the  ground 
cleared  of  snow  when  vegetation  breaks  forth,  not 
gradually,  as  with  us,  but  with  almost  preternatural 
rapidity.  The  months  of  June,  July,  and  August 
are  intensely  hot,  and  bring  all  the  crops  to  a  speedy 
maturity.  Autumn,  which,  according  to  some  wri- 
ters, does  not  exist  in  America,  is  described  by  oth- 
ers as  the  most  agreeable  of  all  the  seasons.  In 
September  and  October  the  days  are  warm,  but  the 
mornings  and  evenings  cool  and  agreeable ;  and  the 
foliage,  assuming  the  varied  autumnal  tints,  presents 
an  enchanting  picture.  In  November,  when  frost 
is  about  to  set  in,  a  grateful  interval  usually  occurs 
of  what  is  termed  the  Indian  summer.  A  delightful 
w^armth  is  then  felt  through  the  air,  while  a  thin 
and  beautiful  haze  covers  the  face  of  nature.*  No 
rational  account  appears  to  have  been  yet  given  of 
this  phenomenon  ;  for  the  Canadian  theory,  that  it  is 
produced  by  the  smoke  of  distant  prairies  fired  by 
the  Indians,  is  unworthy  of  refutation.  We  cannot 
help  suggesting,  that  all  the  waters,  here  so  abun- 
dant, are  then  undergoing  the  process  of  conversion 
from  a  fluid  into  a  solid  form  ;  in  the  course  of 
which  they  must  necessarily  give  out  in  large  quan- 
tities the  caloric  which  held  them  in  a  state  of  tluid- 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  339,  340-344.  M'Gregor,  vol.  i.,  p. 
123-135.  Howison,  p.  243-245.  Gourlay,  vol.  ii.,  p.  141-144. 
Darby,  p.  421-431. 

F3 


S6  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

ity.     Heat  thus  developed  will  naturally  be  accom« 
paiiied  with  thin  mist,  which  is,  in  fact,  usually  seen 
rising  from  the  surface  of  a  newly-frozen  stream.* 
The  winter  of  Lower  Canada  commences  in  the 
end  of  November,  and  lasts  five  months,  or  till  the 
close  of  April.     In  the  southern  parts  of  the  upper 
province  it  is  nearly  two  months  shorter.     This  pe- 
riod, winch,  in  our  conceptions,  appears  so  dreary, 
is  to  the  Canadian  a  season  of  cheerfulness  and  en- 
joyment.    Warm  clothing  and  due  precaution  secur 
imu  against  any  dangerous  or  even  painful  effect 
from  the  extreme  cold.     As  the  country  is  easily 
traversed  in  every  direction  by  light  carioles,  large 
parties  assemble,  and  enliven  the  gloom  of  the  year 
by  festivity  and  social  intercourse.! 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  excessive 
rigour  of  the  climate,  more  especially  its  extremes 
and  sudden  changes,  would  have  been  peculiarly  try- 
ing to  the  human  constitution.  Experience,  on  the 
contrary,  has  established  its  decided  salubrity.  The 
countries,  too,  in  which  the  cold  is  most  severe,  and 
the  contrasts  greatest,  are  found  the  healthiest. 
Hence  Lower  is  more  salubrious  than  Upper  Cana- 
da, and  the  latter  than  the  United  States.  It  is  true, 
at  the  same  time,  that  diseases  originating  in  cold, 
iuch  as  rheumatism  and  pulmonary  consumption,  are 

he  most  common  ;  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  over 
ill  America  the  teeth  are  subject  to  early  decay. 
The  Upper  Province  suffers  from  intermittent  fever, 

hough  not  so  severely  as  the  countries  farther  south; 

t  is  distressing  and  weakening,  but  seldom  fatal. J 

•  Unfortunately  for  the  ingenious  theory  here  advanced,  this 
teculiar  state  of  the  atmosphere,  so  common  for  a  few  weeks 
Bi  autumn,  is  not  hmited  to  portions  of  the  country  where  the 
ivaters  are  overabundant,  tjut  is  equally  experienced  throughout 
Ihe  United  States. — Am.  Ed. 

i  Bouchette,  vol.  i ,  p.  343,  344, 409.    Howison,  p.  243.     Back- 


woods  of  Canada  (ISino,  London,  1836),  p.  206. 
X  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  344.     M'Gregor,  vol.  i.. 


p.  136-13d. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CA.<fADA.  67 

The  action  of  the  climate  upon  agricultural  pro- 
inclious  is  more  favourable  in  these  countries  than 
111  ot"  ers  which  have  the  same  mean  tempera- 
mre.  The  intense  heat  even  of  the  short  summer 
ripens  corn  and  fruits  which  will  not  thrive  in  re- 
gions wliere  the  same  warmth  is  more  equally  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  year.  Thus  Quebec  agrees 
in  mean  annual  temperature  with  Christiania;  yet 
wheat,  scarcely  ever  attempted  in  Norway,  is  the 
staple  of  Lower  (.anada.  The  upper  province  near- 
ly coincides  with  the  north  of  England ;  yet  the 
grape,  the  peach,  and  the  melon  come  to  as  much 
perfection  as  in  their  native  soil.*  Even  rice  is  found 
growing  wild.f  In  this  respect  British  America 
seems  not  to  fall  much  short  of  European  countries 
under  the  same  latitude.  Its  winter-cold,  at  the 
same  time,  enables  it  to  combine  the  products  of 
the  northern  with  those  of  the  southern  temperate 
climates.  By  the  side  of  the  fruits  above  mention- 
ed flourish  the  strawberry  and  the  raspberry  ;J  while 
ihe  evergreen  pines  are  copiously  intermingled  with 
the  oak,  the  elm,  and  others  of  ampler  foliage.  The 
woods  are  filled  with  the  rich  fur-bearing  animals  that 
belong  to  an  arctic  climate.  The  only  difficulty  is 
found  with  such  agricultural  productions  as,  under 
milder  skies,  are  improved  by  wintering  in  the  soil. 
Autumn  wheat,  for  example,  has  not  yet  succeeded 
in  Lower  Canada;  and  several  of  the  more  delicate 
artificial  grasses  have  failed.  The  farmer  likewise 
Uffers  inconvenience  from  the  short  interval  in 
which  all  his  operations  of  sowing,  reaping,  and 

*  Our  author  if  certainly  under  a  mistake  here.     Althougft 
hese  fruits  will  giow,  and  sometimes  mature  in  Upper  Canada, 
they  are  always  vtry  inferior  in  size  and  flavour  to  those  pro- 
duced in  more  southern  latitudes. — Am.  Ed. 

t  This  IS  believed  to  be  a  different  plant,  however,  from  that 
usually  cultivated  fi  'r  its  grain.  Perhaps  the  oryzopsis  ci  botany 
ar  plant  resembling  nee. — Am.  Ed. 

}  Bouchette,  vo..  -,  p,  336.     Backwoods,  p.  143,  144. 


6S  GENEUAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

harvesting  must  be  completed,  while  he  is  left  with- 
out occupation  during  the  long  remainder  of  the 

Before  closing  this  general  view  of  Canada,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  introduce  some  notice  of  the  ques- 
;ioii  which  has  arisen  between  Britain  and  the  Uni- 
r>vl  States  respecting  their  common  boundaries. 
The  vi'gue  terms  often  used  in  treaties  have  given 
rihK  to  disputes  and  diifjculties;  but  it  is  seldom,  as 
m  tlie  present  instance,  that  they  apply  to  a  territory 
{.f  10.000  st]uare  miles,  or  6,400.000  acres.  Though 
this  tract  is  at  present  only  an  unbroken  forest,  yet, 
as  It  consists  in  general  of  fertile  land,  the  process 
of  c. (Ionization,  now  rapidly  approaching  it,  will,  at 
lio  very  distant  period,  render  it  of  great  value. 
Botli  naliuny  maintain  their  claim  in  a  very  peremp- 
tory manner;  and  Bouchette,  with  other  writers  on 
the  British  side,  repels  with  the  utmost  indignation 
the  idea  of  yielding  a  single  inch.*  We  respect  the 
prurioiic  zeal  of  these  authors  ;  yet,  when  such  feel- 
iits  carry  a  people  to  unreasonable  demands,  and 
prevent  them  from  listening  to  argument,  it  may  lead 
to  calamitous  consequences.  We  shall  therefore 
endeavour  to  approach  the  subject  impartially,  and 
view  it  as  if  totally  abstracted  from  either  British  of 
.American  interests. 

The  terms  of  the  treaty  on  which  the  dispute  hin- 
ijes  are,  that  the  boundary  shall  be  drawn  "along 
the  highlands  which  divide  those  rivers  that  empty  them- 
selves into  the  river  St.  Lawrence  from  those  which  fall 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.''''  These  words  were  penn- 
ed in  complete  ignorance  respecting  the  country  of 
which  they  were  intended  to  dispose.  Instead  of 
one  highland  tract,  whose  opposite  waters  fall  into 
the  specified  receptacles,  there  are  two  ridges,  con- 
siderably distant,  and  enclosing  between  them  the 
wide  expanse  of  the  disputed  territory.  Through- 
out its  centre,  from  west  to  east,  flows  the  St.  .Tohn, 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  18,  26.    M'Gregor,  vol. '.,  p.  140. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  69 

receiving  nearly  all  the  waters  from  the  north  side 
of  the  one  range  and  the  south  side  of  the  other. 
The  British,  as  their  boundary,  claim  the  most  south- 
erly, the  Americans  the  most  northerly  of  these  two 
lines.  Let  us  see  how  these  claims  will  agree  with 
the  terms  of  tiie  treaty. 

The  British  boundary  clearly  fulfils  one  condition  ; 
all  the  rivers  on  its  southern  side  fall  into  the  At- 
lantic. But  on  the  northern  it  entirely  fails,  for 
there  they  all  How  into  the  St.  John,  and  not  one 
drop  reaches  the  St.  Lawrence.  Here,  then,  we 
cannot  but  own  a  want  of  coincidence  with  the  lit- 
eral terms  of  the  convention.  Bouchetle  does  not 
deny  this,  and  allows  "  that  the  letter  of  the  treaty 
of  1783  has  described  a  boundary  which  the  physi- 
cal and  hydrographical  divisions  of  the  country  to 
be  divided  rendered  it  utterly  impossible  substan- 
tially to  establish."  He  contends,  however,  that 
its  professed  design  of  contemplating  "  reciprocal 
advantages  and  mutual  convenience,"  and  of  pro- 
ceeding upon  "principles  of  liberal  equity  and  reci- 
procity," clearly  decides  the  point  in  favour  of  Brit- 
ain. These,  however,  are  very  vague  grounds  on 
which  to  determine  a  matter  of  fact ;  and,  besides, 
we  do  not  very  distinctly  see  their  bearing  in  our 
favour.  No  doubt  it  would  be  advantageous  and 
convenient  for  Britain  lo  get  the  whole  of  this  ter- 
ritory ;  but  we  caimot  expect  that  the  Americans 
will  see  the  reciprocal  benefit  of  their  losing  the 
whole.  They,  on  the  contrary,  maintain  that  their 
boundary  is  strictly  and  literally  conformable  to  the 
terms  of  the  treaty.  The  rivers  on  one  side  of  it 
undoubtedly  flow  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  while  on 
the  other  they  reach  the  St.  John  ;  which  last  falls 
into  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  and  that  bay  communicates 
with  the  Atlantic*  This,  they  pretend,  is  equiva- 
lent to  il'.e  original  rivers  falling  directly  into  th« 

•  Some  of  them  fall  into  the  Ristigouche,  and  thence  into 
1.— F 


70  GENERAL   VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

Atlantic  Ocean.  But  such  an  interpretation  appears 
to  us  to  be  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  precision 
which  ever  ought  to  be  observed  in  the  terms  of  a 
positive  treaty.  The  obvious  meaning  was,  that  the 
rivers  descending  from  the  ridge  in  question  were 
such  as  fall  into  the  open  Atlantic,  and  not  merely 
connected  with  it  in  this  indirect  manner.  It  can- 
not for  a  moment  be  doubted,  that  the  first  was  the 
meaning  of  the  negotiators  ;  that  they  had  in  view 
the  Penobscot,  the  Kennebeck,  and  the  other  streams 
flowing  from  the  north  into  the  ocean.  We  do  not 
therefore  think  that  the  Americans  stand  on  better 
ground  than  the  British  as  to  the  literal  terms  of  the 
treaty.  Nay,  we  are  convinced  that  these  terms  are 
wholly  incapable  of  being  executed,  as  they  were 
obviously  framed  by  persons  entirely  ignorant  of 
the  territory  in  question. 

In  order  to  adjust  this  difference,  it  was  agreed  by 
the  two  contracting  powers,  on  the  12lh  of  January, 
1829,  to  refer  it  to  the  arbitration  of  the  King  of 
Holland.  Accordingly,  on  the  10th  Januarj^  1831, 
his  majesty  delivered  his  award,  in  which  he  con- 
cluded that  neither  of  the  proposed  boundaries 
could  be  held  as  at  all  conformable  to  the  term  oi 
the  treaty ;  and  proposed,  therefore,  in  their  stead, 
the  river  St.  John,  which,  as  already  stated,  flows 
through  the  middle  of  the  disputed  district.*  This 
decision  was  rejected  by  both  parties,  who  repre- 
sented that  the  office  intrusted  to  the  friendly  mon- 
arch was  to  interpret  the  treaty  in  reference  to  the 
original  terms,  not  to  throw  it  aside  and  substitute 

the  Bay  of  Chaleur,  which  is  also  connected  with  the  Atlantic, 
the  argument  with  regard  to  these  is  exactly  the  same. 

*  His  majesty  proposes  that  the  line,  after  following  tor  a 
considerable  space  upward  the  course  of  the  St.  .lohii,  should 
take  that  of  its  small  tributary  the  St.  Frames,  and  by  it  reach 
and  follow  the  American  land  boundary.  V\'e  do  not  perceive 
the  motive  or  advantage  of  this  deviation  ;  our  reasoning  pro- 
ceeds upon  the  rit  John  being  made  the  bo'.'ndary  throughout 
till  it  strikes  the  American  frontier. 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA.  71 

an  entirely  new  boundary  of  liis  own  contrivance. 
He  had  produced,  they  said,  not  an  interpretation, 
but  a  compromise.  This  is  no  doubt  true;  yet, 
agreeing  with  his  majesty,  that  the  treaty  cannot  be 
nitelligibly  interpreted,  or  possibly  acted  upon, 
and  that  the  affair  can  be  adjusted  only  by  mutual 
concession,  we  cannot  help  thinking  that  the  expe- 
dient proposed  was  deserving  of  a  favourable  con- 
sideration. The  St.  John  divides  the  territory  into 
two  not  very  unequal  portions ;  the  possession  of 
the  northern  bank  would  secure  to  Britain  the  com- 
munication between  New  Brunswick  and  Canada, 
and  prevent  the  frontier  of  the  United  States  from 
encroaching  too  close  on  the  St.  Lawrence.  A  wa- 
ter boundary,  where  it  can  be  procured,  is  usually 
preferred  as  the  most  precise  and  defensible ;  and 
it  is  very  probable  that  in  this  case  it  would  have 
been  adopted  by  the  negotiators  in  1783,  had  they 
not  been  wholly  ignorant  of  its  existence.  At  all 
events,  it  is  extremely  desirable  that  some  adjust- 
ment should  take  place  as  speedily  as  possible,  be- 
fore the  increasing  importance  of  the  land  shall  ren- 
der it  a  subject  of  serious  dissension  between  two 
great  nations.*  f 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  18-22,  489-498.     M'Gregor,  vol.  i.,  p. 
140. 

t  With  regard  to  the  territory  in  dispute,  it  is  certain  that 
the  condition  of  the  treaty  of  1783,  referring  to  streams  flowing 
northerly  into  the  St.  Lawrerjce,  can  be  satisfied  in  no  other 
way  than  by  assuming  that  the  highlands  claimed  by  the  United 
States  are  those  intended  by  that  treaty.  But  then,  it  is  requi- 
red, by  a  second  condition  in  the  same  treaty,  that  the  streams 
running  southerly  from  the  designated  highlands  shall  flow  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  ;  and  here  the  British  cabinet  contends  that 
this  latter  condition  completely  fails;  inasmuch  as  the  waters 
of  these  streams,  that  is,  the  St.  John  and  its  tributaries,  have 
their  outlet  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  which,  say  they,  cannot  be 
considered  as  satisfying  the  condition  that  they  shall  flow  into 
the  Atlantic.  < 'n  this  they  proceed  to  set  up  a  very  different 
claim  of  their  own  :  pretending  that  certain  otiier  highlands,  \y 
ing  south  of  the  St.  .John's  and  the  disputed  territority,  are  the 


72  GENERAL    VIEW    OF    CANADA. 

ones  intended  by  the  treaty ;  on  the  ground  that  the  streams 
running  southerly  from  the  latter,  viz.,  the  Penobscot  and  the 
Kennebeck,  fall  directly  into  the  Atlantic.  But  there  are  no 
» streams  originating  in  these  more  southern  highlands  which 
flow  into  the  St.  Lawrence.  Still,  say  the  British  cabinet,  we 
have  as  good  reason  for  our  claim  as  you  have  for  yours  ;  inas- 
much as,  by  assuming  the  northern  highlands  as  the  true  bound- 
ary, you  make  good  only  one  condition  of  the  treaty,  while  we,  in 
taking  the  more  southern,  no  less  completely  satisfy  tl  e  other 
condition. 

In  opposition  to  this,  the  American  government  contend,  and 
we  think  most  rightfully,  that  both  conditions  of  the  treaty  of 
1783  are  satisfied,  and  in  the  only  way  that  they  possibly  can 
be,  by  taking,  as  they  have,  the  more  northern  highlands ;  in- 
asmuch as  from  these,  and  from  no  others,  the  streams  flow 
northerly  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  southerly  into  the  Atlantic ; 
assuming  in  this,  as,  under  the  circumstances,  and  on  every  fair 
principle  of  construction,  they  seem  justified  m  doing,  that  the 
waters  of  the  St.  John's,  in  flowing  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
should  be  considered  within  the  meaning  and  intention  of  the 
treaty,  as  flowing  into  the  Atlantic  ;  since  this  bay  is  a  branch 
or  arm  of  that  ocean,  and,  as  such,  a  part  of  the  same,  receiving 
its  tides  and  opening  broadly  into  it. 

Such  are  the  grounds  of  the  American  claim.  And  now  let 
us  briefly  consider  the  counter  claim  set  up  by  the  British  cab- 
inet. By  their  own  course  of  reasoning  it  may  be  shown,  that 
they  completely  fail  in  the  very  point  which  they  pretend  is  in 
their  favour,  since  neither  the  Penobscot  nor  the  Kennebeck 
flow  directly  into  the  open  ocean  ;  the  former  terminating  in  the 
bay  of  the  same  name,  and  the  latter  in  Sheepscot  Bay.  Now, 
I  whatever  may  be  the  character  of  this  objection,  whether  it  be 
"  (vellfounded  or  not,  it  must  be  considered  as  valid  against  the 
party  choosing  to  avail  themselves  of  it,  to  answer  their  own 
purposes  m  a  parallel  case.  If,  besides  this,  we  consider  that 
there  are  no  streams  running  from  the  highlands  assumed  by 
the  British  cabinet  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  we  must  be  con- 
vinced that  they  make  out  a  most  unsatisfactory  case  ;  and  that, 
if  this  matter  is  to  be  decided  by  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  and  no- 
thing else,  the  American  government,  to  say  the  least,  occupy 
by  far  the  strongest  ground. 

How  this  controversy  may  finally  be  adjusted  it  is  impossible 
to  foresee.  Neither  party  inanilests  a  disposition  to  yield  ; 
and  recent  events  have  increased  the  apprehension  that  serious 
diificullies  may  arise.  It  would  be  truly  lamentable  if  the  two 
nations  should  resort  to  extreme  measures  to  settle  this  question , 
nor  can  we  for  a  moment  suppose,  vvhatever  may  be  the  present 
appearances,  that  it  will  come  to  this. — Am.  Ed. 


THE    NATIVE    INDIANS,  ETC.  73 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Native  Indians  inhabiting  Canada  and  tts  Bor- 

ders. 

Peculiar  Condition  of  those  Tribes.— Their  Physical  Character. 
—Form— Colour-  Hair  and  Beard— Bodily  Strength.— Dress. 
— Ornaments.— Painting  and  Tattooing  of  the  Skin. — Modes 
of  Subsistence. — Hunting.— Cultivation — Food. — Houses. — 
Canoes. — Spirit  of  Independence. — Internal  Order — Marria- 
ges.— Rearing  of  Children.— Intellectual  Character.— Orato- 
ry.— Style  of  Composition  — Religious  Ideas. — Importance  at- 
tached to  Dreams.— The  xManitou.— Ideas  of  a  P'uture  State. 
—  Reverence  for  the  Dead. — Ceremonies  of  Interment.— Su- 
perstitious Modes  of  curing  the  Sick. — Indian  Wars. — Their 
Motives. —  Preparations. —  March. — Modes  of  attacking  and 
surprising  the  Enemy.— Return. — Treatment  of  Prisoners  ; 
Tortures  ;  Adoption.— Treaties. — Indian  Amusements— Mu- 
sic—Dancing — Smoking— Games. — Different  Tribes  inhabit- 
ing Canada  and  its  Borders. 

Among  the  intellectual  advantages  derived  from 
the  discovery  of  America,  perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant was  the  opening  of  a  new  page  in  the  history 
of  man  ;  for  he  was  there  presented  under  an  as- 
pect never  before  viewed  by  the  sages  either  of  the 
ancient  or  modern  world.  Tlie  rudest  form  under 
which  they  had  observed  the  human  being  was  that 
called  barbarous ;  and  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, the  Scythians  were  received  as  representing 
the  man  of  nature.  But,  though  comparatively  rude, 
that  people  had  already  made  a  considerable  prog- 
ress in  the  arts.  They  had  reached  the  pastoral 
state,  possessed  numerous  tlocks  and  herds,  and 
were  united  in  large  bodies  under  hereditary  chiefs. 
The  modern  Europeans,  again,  have  records  of  a 
time  when  they  themselves  were  little  removed 
Irom  a  similar  condition,  of  which  examples  still 

G 


74  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

exist  in  the  outer  borders  of  the  Continent ;  bul  they 
have  never  beheid  nations  consisting  only  of  hand- 
fuls  of  men,  roaming  through  an  unbounded  and 
continuous  forest,  having  scarcely  any  animals  ta- 
med for  service  or  food,  and  supporting  themselves 
solely  on  the  precarious  product  of  the  chase.*  On 
the  first  intimation  of  the  existence  of  such  tribes, 
they  were  in  this  part  of  the  world  supposed  to  be  a 
mere  assemblage  of  meager  and  shivering  wretches, 
whose  constant  exertions  must  be  employed  in  at- 
tempting to  escape  the  famine  with  which  they  were 
perpetually  threatened.  The  first  discoverers,  ac- 
cordingly, were  surprised  to  find  among  them  war- 
riors, statesmen,  and  orators ;  a  proud  race,  of  dig- 
nified port,  terrible  in  war,  mild  in  peace,  maintain- 
ing order  without  the  restraint  of  law,  and  uniting 
by  the  closest  ties  the  members  of  the  same  com- 
munity. Such,  though  with  some  remarkable  ex- 
ceptions, was  the  picture  exhibited  by  the  savages 
of  the  New  World,  particularly  in  its  northern  re- 
gions ;  and  those  nations  who  dwelt  on  the  rivers 
and  lakes  of  Canada,  presented  it  in  the  most  deci- 
ded features,  least  modified  by  the  restraints  and  re- 
finements of  civilized  life.  The  English  and  French, 
who,  during  nearly  three  centuries,  have  been  en- 
gaged with  them  in  the  relations  either  of  close  al- 
liance or  of  deadly  war,  have  learned  to  appreciate 
all  that  is  bright  as  well  as  all  that  is  dark  and  ter- 
rible in  the  character  of  this  extraordinary  race. 
From  this  intercourse  we  are  furnished  with  ample 
means  of  estimating  a  state  of  society  so  peculiar, 
and  so  remote  from  that  civilization  to  which  Eu- 
rope has  attained. 

In  their  physical  character,  the  American  Indians 
are  considered  by  Blumenbach  as  forming  a  particu- 

♦  This  should  be  somewhat  qualified.  The  native  tribes  of 
the  New  World,  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  were  not  unac- 
quainted with  iriaizo  or  liidian-corn,  which  they  cultivated  in  a 
rude  way,  as  part  of  their  means  of  subsistence. — 4'n-  t'd. 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.       75 

lar  variety  of  the  human  species,  differinpf,  though 
not  very  widely,  from  the  Mongolian.  Believing, 
as  we  do,  that  the  New  World  was  peopled  from 
the  Old,  and  considering  that  the  Mongol  race  was 
situated  nearest  to  the  point  where  Asia  and  America 
come  almost  into  contact,  we  incline  to  ascribe  these 
variations  merely  to  a  change  of  outward  circum- 
stances. The  face  is  broad  and  flat,  with  high 
cheek-bones;  more  rounded  and  arched,  however, 
than  in  the  allied  type,  without  having  the  visage 
expanded  to  the  same  breadth.  The  forehead  is 
generally  low  ;  the  eyes  deep,  small,  and  black  ;  the 
nose  rather  diminutive,  but  prominent,  with  wide 
nostrils;  and  the  mouth  large,  with  somewhat  thick 
lips.  The  stature,  which  varies  remarkably  through- 
out the  Continent,  is,  in  the  quarter  of  which  we 
treat,  generally  above  the  middle  size.  This  prop- 
erty, however,  is  confined  to  the  men,  the  females 
being  usually  below  that  standard,  a  fact  which  may 
be  confidently  ascribed  to  the  oppressive  drudgery 
they  are  compelled  to  undergo.  The  limbs,  in  both 
sexes,  are  well  proportioned ;  and  few  instances  of 
deformity  ever  occur.* 

The  colour  of  the  skin  in  the  Indian  is  generally 
described  as  red  or  copper-coloured ;  or,  according 
to  Mr.  Lawrence's  more  precise  definition,  it  is  "  an 
obscure  orange  or  rusty  iron  colour,  not  unlike  the 
bark  of  the  cinnamon-tree."  Although  we  believe 
that  climate  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  diversities  in 
human  colour,  yet  it  is  certain  that  all  savages  are 
dark-tinted.  This  peculiarity  may  be  accounted  for 
by  their  constant  exposure  to  the  inclemency  of  the 
seasons,  to  sun,  air,  and  tempests ;  and  the  same 
cause  in  civilized  countries  produces  a  similar  effect 
on  sailors,  as  well  as  on  those  who  work  constantly 

*  Lawrence's  Leftures  on  Physioloery.  Zoology,  and  the 
Natural  History  of  Man  { 12rnr.,  London,''l834),  p.  365.  Adair's 
History  of  the  Aiiit  rican  Indians  (4t(),  l.ondon,  1775),  p.  5,  6. 
Weld's  Travels  in  Worth  America  and  Canada  (4tQ,  London, 
1799),  p.  375-377. 


76  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

in  the  fields.  In  the  Old  World,  the  intermediate 
tints  between  white  and  black  are  generally  varieties 
of  blown  and  yellow.  The  red  tint  is  considered 
characteristic  of  the  New  World.  We  must,  how- 
ever, observe,  that  the  traveller  Adair,  who  lived 
upward  of  thirty  years  among  the  Indians,  posi- 
tively asserts  that  it  is  artificially  produced  ;  that  in 
the  oil,  grease,  and  other  unctuous  substances  with 
which  they  keep  their  skin  constantly  smeared, 
there  is  dissolved  the  juice  of  a  root  which  gradually 
tinges  it  of  this  colour.  He  states,  that  a  white  man, 
who  spent  some  years  with  the  natives,  and  adorned 
himself  in  their  manner,  completely  acquired  it. 
Charlevoix  seems  also  to  lean  to  the  same  opinion. 
Weld,  though  rather  inclined  to  dissent  from  it, 
admits  that  such  a  notion  was  adopted  by  mission- 
aries and  others  who  had  resided  long  in  the  coun- 
try. It  is  certain  that  the  inhabitants  glory  in  this 
colour,  and  regard  Europeans  who  have  it  not  as 
nondescript  beings,  not  fully  entitled  to  the  name 
of  men.  It  may  be  noticed  also,  that  this  tint  is  by 
no  means  so  universal  as  is  commonly  supposed. 
Humboldt  declares  that  the  idea  of  its  general  prev- 
alence could  never  have  arisen  in  equinoctial  Amer- 
ica, or  been  suggested  by  the  view  of  the  natives  in 
that  region ;  yet  these  provinces  include  by  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  aboriginal  population.  The  people 
of  Nootka  Sound  and  other  districts  of  the  north- 
western coast  are  nearly  as  white  as  Europeans : 
which  may  be  ascribed,  we  think,  to  their  ample 
clothing  and  spacious  habitations.  Thus  the  red 
nations  appear  limited  to  the  eastern  tribes  of  North 
America,  among  whom  generally  prevails  the  cus- 
tom of  painting  or  smearing  the  skin  with  that  fa- 
vourite colour.  We  are  not  prepared  to  express  a 
decided  opinion  on  this  subject;  but  it  obviously 
requires  a  closer  investigation  than  it  has  yet  re 
ceived.* 
*  Lawience,  p.  365.     Humboldt's  Personal  Narrative  of  Tra- 


CANADA    AND    rTS    BORDERS.  77 

The  liair  is  another  particular  in  which  the  races 
of  manlcind  remarkably  differ.  The  ruder  classes 
are  generally  defective,  eitlier  in  the  abundance  or 
quality  of  that  graceful  appendage ;  and  the  hair  of 
the  American  Indians,  like  that  of  their  allied  type 
the  Mongols,  is  coarse,  black,  thin,  but  strong,  and 
growing  to  a  great  length.  Like  the  latter,  also,  by 
a  curious  coincidence,  most  of  them  remove  it  from 
every  part  of  the  head,  with  the  exception  of  a  tuft 
on  the  crown,  which  they  cherish  with  much  care. 
The  circumstance,  however,  which  has  excited  the 
greatest  attention,  is  the  absence  of  beard,  appa- 
rently entire,  among  all  the  people  of  the  New 
World.  The  early  travellers  viewed  it  as  a  natural 
deficiency;  whence  Robertson  and  other  eminent 
writers  have  even  inferred  the  existence  of  some- 
tliing  peculiarly  feeble  in  their  whole  frame.  But 
the  assertion,  with  all  the  inferences  founded  upon 
It,  so  far  as  relates  to  tlie  North  American  tribes, 
has  been  completely  refuted  by  recent  observation. 
The  original  growth  has  been  found  nearly,  if  not 
wholly,  as  ample  as  that  of  Europeans;  but  the 
moment  it  appears,  every  trace  is  studiously  oblit- 
erated. This  is  effected  by  the  aged  females,  ori- 
ginally with  a  species  of  clam-shell,  but  now  by 
means  of  spiral  pieces  of  brass-wire  supplied  by  the 
traders.  With  these  an  old  squaw  will  in  a  few 
minutes  reduce  the  chin  to  a  state  of  complete 
smoothness  ;  and  slight  applications  during  the  year 
clear  away  such  straggling  hairs  as  may  happen  to 
sprout.  It  is  only  among  old  men,  who  become 
careless  of  their  appearance,  that  the  beard  begins 
to  be  perceptible.  A  late  English  traveller  strongly 
recommends  to  his  countrymen  a  practice  which, 
though  scarcely  accordant  with  our  ideas  of  manly 

vels  to  the  Equinoctial  Regions  of  the  New  Continent  (9  vols. 
8vo,  London,  !811>),  vol.  iii.,  p.  223.  Adair,  p.  3.  Wdd,  p.  375. 
Charlevoix's  Jouriia!  of  a  Voyage  to  North  America  (2  Tola.  8vo, 
London,  17G1),  vol.  li.,  p.  90. 

GS 


78  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INIIABITINO 

dignity,  would,  at  the  expense  of  a  few  minutes'  pain, 
save  them  much  daily  trouble.  The  Indians  have 
probably  adopted  this  usage,  as  it  removes  an  ob- 
stacle to  the  fantastic  painting  of  the  face,  which 
they  value  so  highly.  A  full  beard,  at  all  events, 
when  it  was  first  seen  on  their  French  visiters,  is 
said  to  have  been  viewed  with  peculiar  antipathy, 
and  to  have  greatly  enhanced  the  pleasure  with 
which  they  killed  these  foreigners.* 

The  comparative  physical  strength  of  savage  and 
civilized  nations  has  been  a  subject  of  controversy. 
A  general  impression  has  obtained  that  the  former, 
inured  to  simple  and  active  habits,  acquire  a  decided 
superiority  ;  but  experience  appears  to  have  proved 
that  this  conclusion  is  ill  founded.  On  the  field  of 
battle,  when  a  struggle  takes  place  between  man  and 
man,  the  Indian  is  usually  worsted.  In  sportive 
exercises,  such  as  wrestling,  he  is  most  frequently 
thrown,  and  in  leaping  comes  short  of  his  antagonist. 
Even  in  walking  or  running,  if  for  a  short  distance, 
he  is  left  behind;  but  in  these  last  movements  he 
possesses  a  power  of  perseverance  and  continued 
exertion  to  which  there  is  scarcely  any  parallel. 
An  individual  has  been  known  to  travel  nearly 
eighty  miles  in  a  day,  and  arrive  at  his  destination 
without  any  symptoms  of  fatigue.  These  long 
journeys,  also,  are  frequently  performed  without  any 
refreshment,  and  even  having  the  shoidders  loaded 
with  heavy  burdens,  their  capacity  of  supporting 
which  is  truly  wonderful.  For  about  twelve  miles, 
indeed,  a  strong  European  will  keep  ahead  of  the 
Indian;  but  then  he  begins  to  flag,  while  the  other, 
proceeding  with  unaltered  pace,  outstrips  him  con- 
siderably. Even  powerful  animals  cannot  equal 
them  in  this  respect.     Many  of  their  civilized  ad- 

*  Weld,  p.  377,  378.  Adair,  p.  6.  Relation  de  ce  que  s'est 
passe  de  plus  remarquable  aux  Missions  des  P.  P.  de  la  Com- 
pagnie  de  J^sus,  ea  la  Nouvelle  Fra^ice  (32  tonias  8vo  Paria 
1683-1671).  an  1G67,  p.  104. 


CANADA    AND    ITS    BORDERS.  79 

versaries,  when  overcome  in  war,  and  fleeing  before 
them  on  swift  horses,  have,  after  a  long  chase,  been 
overtaken  and  scalped.* 

Having  thus  given  a  view  of  the  persons  of  the 
Indians,  we  may  proceed  to  consider  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  ch)thed  and  ornamented.  This  last 
object  might  have  been  expected  to  be  a  very  sec- 
ondary one,  among  tribes  whose  mfans  of  subsist 
ence  are  so  scanty  and  precarious ;  but,  so  far  is  this 
from  being  the  case,  that  there  is  scarcely  any  pur- 
suit which  occupies  so  much  of  their  time  and  re- 
gard. They  have  availed  themselves  of  European 
intercourse  to  procure  each  a  small  mirror,  in  which, 
from  time  to  time,  they  view  their  personal  decora- 
tions, taking  care  that  everything  shall  be  in  the 
most  perfect  order.  Embellishment,  however,  is 
not  much  expended  on  actual  clothing,  which  is  sim- 
ple, and  chiefly  arranged  with  a  view  to  convenience. 
Instead  of  shoes,  they  wear  what  are  termed  moc- 
casins, consisting  of  one  strip  of  soft,  leather  wrap- 
ped round  the  foot,  and  fastened  in  front  and  behind. 
Europeans,  walking  over  hard  roads,  soon  knock 
these  to  pieces;  but  the  Indian,  tripping  over  snow 
or  grass,  finds  them  a  light  and  agreeable  chnvssure. 
Upward  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh,  apiece  of  leath- 
er or  cloth,  tightly  fitted  to  the  limb,  serves  instead 
of  pantaloons,  stockings,  and  boots  ;  it  is  sometimes 
sewed  on  so  close  as  never  to  be  taken  ofl".  To  a 
string  or  girdle  round  the  waist  are  fastened  two  , 
aprons,  one  before  and  the  other  at  the  back,  each 
somewhat  more  than  a  foot  square ;  and  these  are 
connected  by  a  piece  of  cloth  like  a  truss,  often  used 
also  as  a  capacious  pocket.  The  use  of  breeches 
they  have  always  repelled  with  contempt,  as  cum- 
brous and  effeminate.  As  an  article  of  female  dress, 
they  would  consider  them  less  objectionable ;  but 

♦  Lawrence,  p.  253.  Weld,  p.  388,  389  Long's  Voyages 
and  Travels  of  an  Indian  Interpreter  and  Traler  '4to,  Loudon, 
n91),  p.  36. 


80  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

that  the  limbs  of  a  warrior  should  be  thus  manacled, 
appears  to  them  utterly  preposterous.  They  were 
particularly  scandalized  at  seeing  an  officer  have 
them  fastened  over  the  shoulder  by  braces,  and 
never  after  gave  him  any  naiiu;  but  Tied-Breech. 

The  garments  now  enumerated  form  the  whole 
of  their  permanent  dress.  On  occasions  of  ceremo- 
ny, indeed,  or  when  exposed  to  cold,  they  put  ovei 
it  a  short  shirt  fastened  at  the  neck  and  wrists,  and 
above  it  a  long  loose  robe,  closed  or  held  together 
in  front.  For  this  purpose  they  now  generally  pre- 
fer an  English  blanket.  All  these  articles  were 
originally  fabricated  from  the  skins  of  wild  animals  ; 
but  at  present,  unless  for  the  moccasins,  and  some- 
limes  the  leggins,  European  stuffs  are  preferred. 
The  dress  of  the  female  scarcely  differs  from  that 
of  the  male,  except  that  the  apron  reaches  down  to 
the  knees  ;  and  even  this  is  said  to  have  been  adopt- 
ed since  their  acquaintance  with  civilized  nations. 
The  early  French  writers  relate  an  amusing  anec- 
dote to  prove  how  little  dress  was  considered  as 
making  a  distinction  between  the  sexes.  The  Ursu- 
line  nuns,  having  educated  a  Huron  girl,  presented 
her,  on  her  marriage  to  one  of  her  countrymen, 
with  a  complete  and  handsome  suit  of  clothes  in  the 
Parisian  style.  They  were  much  surprised,  some 
days  after,  to  see  the  husband,  who  had  ungenerous- 
ly seized  the  whole  of  his  bride's  attire  and  array- 
ed himself  in  it,  parading  back  and  forward  in  front 
of  the  convent,  and  betraying  every  symptom  of 
the  most  extravagant  exultation.  This  was  farther 
heightened  when  he  observed  the  ladies  crowding 
to  the  window  to  see  him,  and  a  universal  smile 
spread  over  their  countennnces.* 

These  vestments,  as  already  observed,  are  simple, 
and  adapted  only  for  use.  To  gratify  his  passionate 
love  of  ornament,  the  Indian  seeks  chiefly  to  load 

*  Creuxius,  Nova  Francia  (4to,  Paris,  1664),  p.  63, 64.  Adair, 
p.  7.     Weld,  p.  380-383. 


CANADA    AiND    ITS    BORDERS.  81 

his  person  with  certain  glittering  appendages.  Be- 
fore the  arrival  of  Enropeans,  shells  and  feathers 
took  the  lead  ;  but,  since  that  period,  these  com- 
modities have  been  nearly  supplanted  by  beads, 
rings,  bracelets,  and  similar  toys,  which  are  inserted 
profusely  into  various  parts  of  his  apparel,  particu- 
larly the  little  apron  in  front.  The  chiefs  usually 
wear  a  breastplate  ornamented  with  them ;  and 
among  all  classes  it  is  an  object  of  the  greatest  am- 
bition to  have  the  largest  possible  number  suspend- 
ed from  the  ear.  That  organ,  therefore,  is  not  bored, 
but  slit  to  such  an  extent  that  a  stick  of  wax  may 
be  passed  through  the  aperture,  which  is  then  load- 
ed with  all  the  bawbles  that  can  be  mustered ;  and 
if  the  weight  of  these  gradually  draw  down  the 
yielding  flap  till  it  rest  on  the  shoulder,  and  the  or- 
naments themselves  cover  the  breast,  the  Indian  has 
reached  his  utmost  height  of  finery.  This,  howev- 
er, is  a  precarious  splendour ;  the  ear  becomes  more 
and  more  unfit  to  support  the  burden,  when  at  length 
some  accident,  the  branch  of  a  tree,  or  even  a  twitch 
by  a  waggish  comrade,  lays  at  his  feet  all  his  deco- 
rations, with  the  portion  of  flesh  to  which  they 
were  attached.  Weld  saw  very  few  who  had  pre- 
served this  organ  entire  through  life.  The  adjust- 
ment of  the  hair,  again,  is  an  object  of  especial 
study.  As  already  observed,  the  greater  part  is 
generally  eradicated,  leaving  only  a  tuft,  varying  in 
shape  and  place,  according  to  taste  and  national  cus- 
tom, but  usually  encircling  the  crown.  This  lock 
is  stuck  full  of  feathers,  wings  of  birds,  shells,  and 
every  kind  of  fantastic  ornainent.  The  women 
wear  theirs  long  and  flowing,  and  contrive  to  collect 
a  considerable  number  of  ornaments  for  it,  as  well 
as  for  their  ears  and  dress.* 

But  it  is  upon  his  skin  that  the  American  war- 
rior chiefly  lavishes  his  powers  of  embe.lishment. 

»  Creijxius,  p.  63.     Charlevoix,  vol.  ii.,  p.  119,  120.     Weld 
p.  381-383.     Adair,  p.  171. 


82  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

His  taste  in  doing  so  is  very  different  from  ours, 
"  While  tlie  European,"  says  Creuxius,  "  studies  to 
keep  his  skin  clean,  and  free  from  every  extrane- 
ous substance,  the  Indian's  aim  is,  that  his,  by  the 
accumulation  of  oil,  grease,  and  paint,  may  shine 
like  tliat  of  a  roasted  pig."  Soot  scraped  from  the 
bottoms  of  kettles,  the  juices  of  herbs,  having  a 
green,  yellow,  and,  above  all,  a  vermilion  tint,  ren- 
dered adhesive  by  combination  with  oil  and  grease, 
are  lavishly  employed  to  adorn  his  person,  or,  ac- 
cording to  our  idea,  to  render  it  hideous.  Black  and 
red,  alternating  with  each  other  in  varied  stripes, 
are  the  favourite  tints.  Some  blacken  the  face, 
leaving  in  the  middle  a  red  circle,  including  the  up- 
per lip  and  tip  of  the  nose ;  others  have  a  red  spot 
on  each  ear,  or  one  eye  black  and  the  other  of  a  red 
colour.  In  war  the  black  tint  is  profusely  laid  on, 
the  others  being  only  employed  to  heighten  its  ef- 
fect, and  give  to  the  countenance  a  terrific  expres- 
sion. M.  de  Tracy,  when  governor  of  Canada,  was 
told  by  his  Indian  allies,  that,  with  his  good-hu- 
moured face,  he  would  never  inspire  the  enemy  with 
any  degree  of  awe.  They  besought  him  to  place 
himself  under  their  brush,  when  they  would  soon 
make  him  such  that  his  very  aspect  would  strike 
terror.  The  breast,  arms,  and  legs  are  the  seat  of 
more  permanent  unpressions,  analogous  to  the  tat- 
tooing of  the  South  Sea  Islanders.  The  colours  are 
either  elaborately  rubbed  in,  or  fixed  by  slight  in- 
cisions with  needles  and  sharp-pointed  bones.  His 
guardian  spirit,  and  the  animal  that  forms  the  sym- 
bol of  his  tribe,  are  the  first  objects  delineated. 
After  this,  every  memorable  exploit,  and  particularly 
the  enemies  whom  he  has  slain  and  scalped,  are  dili- 
gently graven  on  some  part  of  his  figure ;  so  that 
the  body  of  an  aged  warrior  contains  the  history  of 
his  life.* 

*  Creuxius,  p.  62.     Charlevoix,  vol.    ii.,  p.  118.     Weld,  p. 
382,  383.     Missions  en  la  NouveHe  France,  ans  1664,  1665. 


CANADA    AND    ITS     RIRHRRS.  83 

The  means  of  procuring  subsistence  must  always 
form  an  important  branch  of  national  economy. 
Writers  take  a  superficial  view  of  savage  life,  and, 
seeing  how  scanty  the  articles  of  food  are,  while 
the  demand  is  necessarily  urgent,  have  assumed 
that  the  efforts  to  attain  tliem  must  absorb  his  whole 
mind,  and  scarcely  leave  room  for  any  other  thought 
But,  on  the  contrary,  these  are  to  him  very  sub- 
ordinate objects.  To  perform  a  round  of  daily  la- 
bour, even  though  ensuring  the  most  ample  provision 
for  his  wants,  would  be  equally  contrary  to  his  in- 
clination and  supposed  dignity.  He  will  not  deign 
to  follow  any  pursuit  which  does  not,  at  the  same 
time,  include  enterprise,  adventure,  and  excitement. 
Hunting,  which  the  higher  classes  in  the  civilized 
parts  of  the  world  pursue  for  mere  recreation,  is  al- 
most the  only  occupation  considered  of  sufficient 
importance  to  engage  his  attention.  It  is  peculiarly 
endeared  by  its  resemblance  to  war,  being  carried 
on  with  the  same  weapons,  and  nearly  in  the  same 
manner.  In  his  native  state,  the  arrow  was  the 
favourite  and  almost  exclusive  instrument  for  assail- 
ing distant  objects  ;  but  now  the  gun  has  nearly  su- 
perseded it.  The  great  hunts  are  rendered  more  ani- 
mating, as  well  as  more  effectual,  from  being  carried 
on  in  large  parties,  and  even  by  whole  tribes.  The 
'  men  are  prepared  for  these  by  fasting,  dreaming, 
and  other  superstitious  observances,  similar  to  those 
which  we  shall  find  employed  in  anticipation  of  war. 
In  such  expeditions,  too,  contrivance  and  skill,  as 
well  as  boldness  and  enterprise,  are  largely  em- 
ployed. Sometimes  a  circle  is  formed,  when  all 
the  animals  surrounded  by  it  are  pressed  closer  and 
closer,  till  they  are  collected  in  the  centre,  and  faL 
under  the  accumulated  weight  of  weapons.  On 
other  occasions  they  are  driven  to  the  margin  of  a 
lake  or  river,  in  which,  if  they  attempt  to  seek  ref- 
uge, canoes  are  ready  to  intercept  them.  Else- 
where a  space  is  enclosed  by  stakes,  only  a  narrow 


84  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

opening  being  left,  which,  by  clamour  and  shouts, 
the  grime  are  compelled  to  enter,  and  thereby  se- 
cured. In  autumn  and  spring,  when  the  ice  is  newly 
formed  and  slight,  they  are  pushed  upon  it,  and  their 
legs  breaking  through,  they  are  easily  caught.  In 
winter,  when  the  snow  begins  to  fall,  traps  are  set, 
in  which  planks  are  so  arranged,  that  the  animal,  in 
snatching  at  the  bait,  is  crushed  to  death.  Origi- 
nally the  deer,  both  for  food  and  clothing,  was  the 
most  valuable  object  of  chase  ;  but,  since  the  trade 
with  Europeans  has  given  such  a  prominent  impor- 
tance to  furs,  the  beaver  has  in  some  degree  sup- 
planted it.  In  attacking  this  animal,  great  care  is 
taken  to  prevent  his  escape  into  the  water,  on  which 
his  habitation  always  borders;  and  with  this  view 
various  kinds  of  nets  and  springes  are  employed. 
On  some  occasions  the  Indians  place  themselves 
upon  the  dike  which  encloses  his  amphibious  village. 
They  then  make  an  opening  in  it,  when  the  inmates, 
alarmed  by  seeing  the  water  flowing  out,  hasten  to 
this  barrier,  where  they  encounter  their  enemies, 
armed  with  all  the  instruments  of  destruction.  At 
other  times,  when  ice  covers  the  surface  of  the  pond, 
a  hole  is  made,  at  which  the  animal  comes  to  re- 
spire ;  he  is  then  drawn  out  and  secured.  The  bear 
IS  a  formidable  enemy,  which  must  be  assailed  by 
the  combined  force  of  the  hunters,  who  are  ranged 
in  two  rows,  armed  with  bows  or  muskets.  One  of 
them  advances  and  wounds  him,  and,  on  being  furi- 
ously pursued,  he  retreats  between  the  files,  fol- 
lowed in  the  same  line  by  the  animal,  which  is  then 
overwhelmed  by  their  united  onset.  In  killing  these 
quadrupeds,  the  natives  seem  to  feel  a  sort  of  kind- 
ness and  sympathy  for  their  victim.  On  vanquish- 
ing a  beaver  or  a  bear,  they  celebrate  its  praises 
in  a  song,  recounting  those  good  qualities  which  it 
will  never  more  be  able  to  display,  yet  consoling 
themselves  with  the  useful  purposes  to  which  ita 
flesh  and  its  skin  will  be  applied.* 
*  Chateaubriand's  Travels  in  America  and  Italy  (2  vola.  8to. 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.        85 

Of  the  animals  usually  tamed  and  rendered  sub- 
servient to  useful  purposes,  the  Indians  have  only 
the  dog.  that  faithful  friend  of  man.  Though  his 
services  in  hunting  are  valuable,  he  is  treated  with 
but  little  tenderness,  and  is  left  to  roam  about  the 
dwellinpf,  very  sparingly  supplied  with  food  and 
shelter.  A  missionary,  who  resided  in  a  Huron  vil- 
lage, represents  his  life  as  having  been  rendered 
miserable  by  these  animals.  At  night  they  laid 
themselves  on  his  person  for  the  benefit  of  the 
warmth ;  and,  whenever  his  scanty  meal  was  set 
down,  their  snouts  were  always  first  in  the  dish. 
Dog's  flesh  is  eaten,  and  has  even  a  peculiar  sanctity 
attached  to  it.  On  all  solemn  festivals  it  is  the 
principal  meat,  the  use  of  which,  on  such  occasions, 
seems  to  import  some  high  and  mysterious  meaning. 

But,  besides  the  cheering  avocations  of  the  chase, 
other  means  must  be  used  to  ensure  the  comfort  and 
subsistence  of  the  Indian's  family;  all  of  which, 
however,  are  most  ungenerously  devolved  upon  the 
weaker  sex.  Women,  according  to  Creuxius,  serve 
them  as  domestics,  as  tailors,  as  peasants,  and  as 
oxen;  and  Long  does  not  conceive  that  any  other 
purposes  of  their  existence  are  recognised,  except 
those  of  bearing  children  and  performing  hard  work. 
They  till  the  ground,  carry  wood  and  water,  build 
huts,  make  canoes,  and  fish  ;  in  which  latter  pro- 
cesses, however,  and  in  reaping  the  harvest,  their 
lords  deign  to  give  occasional  aid.  So  habituated 
are  they  to  such  occupations,  that  when  one  of  them 
saw  a  party  of  English  soldiers  c(jllecting  wood,  she 
exclaimed  that  it  was  a  shame  to  see  men  doing 
women's  work,  and  began  herself  to  carry  a  load.* 

Through  the  services  of  this  enslaved  portion  of 

Locdon,  1828),  vol.  i.,  p.  269-279.  Carver's  Travels  through 
the  Interior  Parts  of  North  America  (8vo,  London,  1778),  p. 
287-290.     Lonij.  p.  96. 

»  Colden's  Iliblory  of  the  Five  Nations  (2  vols.  12ino,  Loniloo, 
1755),  vol.  I.,  p.  7,  14.     Creusius,  p.  57.     Long,  p.  137,  13tL 

I.-G 


86  THE   NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

the  tribe,  those  savages  are  enabled  to  combine  in 
a  certain  degree  the  agricultural  with  the  hunting 
state,  vvilhout  any  mixture  of  the  pastoral,  usually 
considered  as  intermediate.  Cultivation,  however, 
is  limited  to  small  spots  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  villages,  and  these  being  usually  at  the  dis- 
tance of  sixteen  or  seventeen  miles  from  each  oth- 
er, it  scarcely  makes  any  impression  on  the  im- 
mense expanse  of  forest.  The  women,  in  the  be- 
giiniing  of  suinnier,  after  having  burned  the  stubble 
of  the  preceding  crop,  rudely  stir  the  ground  with 
a  long,  crooked  piece  of  wood ;  they  then  throw  in 
the  grain,  which  is  chiefly  the  coarse  but  productive 
species  of  maize  peculiar  to  the  Continent.  The 
nations  in  the  south  have  a  considerable  variety  of 
fruits;  whereas  those  of  Canada  appear  to  have 
raised  only  turnsols,  watermelons,  and  pompions. 
Tobacco  used  to  be  grown  largely  ;  but  that  pro- 
duced by  the  P^uropean  settlers  is  now  universally 
preferred,  and  has  become  a  regular  object  of  trade. 
The  grain,  after  harvest  (which  is  celebrated  by  a 
festival),  is  lodged  in  large  subterraneous  stores 
lined  with  bark,  where  it  keeps  extremely  well. 
Previous  to  being  placed  in  these,  it  is  sometimes 
thrashed,  on  other  occasions  merely  the  ears  are 
cut  off,  and  thrown  in.  When  first  discovered  by 
settlers  from  Europe,  the  degrees  of  culture  were 
found  to  vary  in  different  tribes.  The  Algonquins, 
who  were  the  ruling  people  previous  to  the  arrival 
of  the  French,  wholly  despised  it,  and  branded  as 
plebeian  their  neighbours,  by  whom  it  was  practised. 
In  general,  the  northern  clans,  and  those  near  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  depended  almost  solely 
on  hunting  and  fishing ;  and  when  these  failed  they 
were  reduced  to  dreadful  extremities,  being  often 
obliged  to  depend  on  the  miserable  resource  of  that 
species  of  lichen  called  tripe  de  roche. 

The  maize,  when  thrashed,  is  occasionally  toasted 
oji   the  coiil.s,  and  sometimes  made  into  a  coarse 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.        87 

kind  of  unleavened  cake.  But  the  most  favourite 
preparation  is  that  called  sagamity,  a  species  of  pap 
formed  after  it  has  been  roosted,  bruised,  and  sep- 
arated from  the  husk.  It  is  insipid  by  itself;  yet 
when  thrown  into  the  pot,  along  with  the  produce 
of  the  chase,  it  enriches  the  soup  or  stew,  one  of 
the  principal  dishes  at  their  feasts.  They  never  eat 
victuals  raw,  but  rather  overboiled  ;  nor  have  they 
yet  been  brought  to  endure  French  ragouts,  salt, 
pepper,  or,  indeed,  any  species  of  condiment  A 
chief,  admitted  to  the  governor's  table,  seeing  the 
general  use  of  mustard,  was  led  by  curiosity  to  take 
a  spoonful  and  put  it  into  his  mouth.  On  feeling 
its  violent  effects,  he  made  incredible  efforts  to  con- 
ceal them,  and  escape  the  ridicule  of  the  company  ; 
but  severe  sneezmgs,  and  the  tears  starting  from 
his  eyes,  soon  betrayed  him,  and  raised  a  general 
laugh.  He  was  then  shown  the  manner  in  which  it 
should  be  used  ;  but  nothing  could  ever  induce  him 
to  allow  the  "  boiling  yellow,"  as  he  termed  it,  to 
enter  his  lips. 

The  Indians  are  capable  of  extraordinarj'^  absti- 
nence from  food,  in  which  they  can  persevere  for  suc- 
cessive days  without  complaint  or  apparent  suffering. 
They  even  take  a  pride  in  long  fasts,  by  which  they 
usually  prepare  themselves  for  any  great  underta- 
king. Yet,  when  once  set  down  to  a  feast,  their 
gluttony  is  described  as  enormous,  and  the  capacity 
of  their  stomachs  almost  incredible.  They  will  go 
from  feast  to  feast,  doing  honour  to  each  in  succes- 
sion. The  chief  giving  the  entertainment  does  not 
partake,  but  with  his  own  hands  distributes  portions 
among  the  guests.  On  solemn  occasions,  it  is  a 
rule  that  everything  shall  be  eaten ;  nor  does  this 
obligation  seem  to  be  felt  as  either  burdensome  or 
unpleasant.  In  their  native  state,  they  were  not 
acquainted  with  any  species  of  intoxicating  liquors  ; 
their  love  of  ardent  spirits,  attended  with  so  many 


88  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INhABITINO 

niinous  effects,  having  been  entirely  consequent  en 
their  intercourse  with  Europeans.* 

The  habitations  of  the  Indians  receive  much  less 
of  their  attention  than  the  attire,  or,  at  least,  embel- 
lishment of  their  persons.  Our  countrymen,  by 
common  consent,  give  to  them  no  better  appella- 
tion than  cabins.  The  bark  of  trees  is  their  chiel 
material  both  for  houses  and  boats  :  they  peel  it  off 
with  considerable  skill,  sometimes  stripping  a  whole 
tree  in  one  piece.  This  coating,  spread  not  unskil- 
fully over  a  framework  of  poles,  and  fastened  to 
them  by  strips  of  tough  rind,  forms  their  dwellings. 
The  shape,  according  to  the  owner's  fancy,  resem- 
bles a  tub,  a  cone,  or  a  cart-shed,  the  mixture  of 
which  gives  to  the  village  a  confused  and  chaotic 
appearance.  Light  and  heat  are  admitted  only  by 
an  aperture  at  the  top,  through  which  also  the 
smoke  escapes,  after  filling  all  the  upper  part  of  the 
mansion.  Little  inconvenience  is  felt  from  this  by 
the  natives,  who,  within  doors,  never  think  of  any 
position  except  sitting  or  lying;  but  to  Europeans, 
who  must  occasionally  stand  or  walk,  the  abode  is 
thereby  rendered  almost  intolerable;  and  matters 
become  much  worse  when  rain  or  snow  makes  it 
necessary  to  close  the  roof.  These  structures  are 
sometimes  upward  of  a  hundred  feet  long  ;  but  they 
are  then  the  residence  of  two  or  three  separate  fam- 
ilies. Four  of  them  occasionally  compose  a  quad- 
rangle, each  open  on  the  inside,  and  having  a  com- 
mon fire  in  the  centre.  Formerly  the  Iroquois  had 
houses  somewhat  superior,  adorned  even  with  some 
rude  carving  ;  but  these  were  burned  down  by  the 
French  in  successive  expeditions,  and  were  never 
after  rebuilt  in  the  same  style.  The  Canadians  in 
this  respect  seem  o  be  surpassed  by  the  Choc- 
taws,  Chickasaws,  and  other  tribes  in  the  south,  and 

*  Charlevoix,  vol.  ii.,  p.  121-125.  Adair,  p.  409-412.  Creux- 
ius  p.  66.  Mii-sions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,  ans  1657,  1658,  p 
106.  10  <. 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.        89 

even  by  the  Saukies  in  the  west,  whose  mansions 
Carver  describes  as  constructed  of  well-hewn  planks 
neatly  jointed,  and  each  capable  of  containing  sev- 
eral families. 

In  their  expeditions,  whether  for  war  or  hunting, 
which  often  lead  them  through  desolate  forests,  sev- 
eral hundred  miles  from  home,  the  Indians  have  the 
art  of  rearing,  with  great  expedition,  temporary 
abodes.  On  arriving  at  their  evening  station,  a  few 
poles,  meeting  at  the  top  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  are 
in  half  an  hour  covered  with  bark ;  and  having  spread 
a  few  pine-branches  within  by  way  of  mattress,  they 
sleep  as  soundly  as  on  beds  of  down.  Like  the 
Esquimaux,  they  also  understand  how  to  convert 
snow  into  a  material  for  building ;  and  find  it  in  the 
depth  of  winter  the  warmest  and  most  comfortable. 
A  few  twigs  platted  together  secure  the  roof.  Our 
own  countrymen,  in  their  several  campaigns,  have, 
in  cases  of  necessity,  used  with  advantage  this  spe- 
cies of  bivouac. 

The  furniture  in  these  native  huts  is  exceedingly 
simple.  The  chief  articles  are  two  or  three  pots 
or  kettles  for  boiling  their  food,  with  a  few  wooden 
plates  and  spoons.  The  former,  in  the  absence  of 
metal,  with  which  the  inhabitants  were  unacquaint- 
ed, were  made  of  coarse  earthenware  that  resist- 
ed the  fire  ;  and  sometimes  of  a  species  of  soft  stone, 
which  could  be  excavated  with  their  rude  hatchets. 
Nay,  in  some  cases,  their  kitchen  utensils  were  of 
wood,  and  the  water  made  to  boil  by  throwing  in 
heated  stones.  Since  their  acquaintance  with  Eu- 
ropeans, the  superiority  of  iron  vessels  has  been 
found  so  decided,  that  they  are  now  universally 
preferred.  The  great  kettle  or  caldron,  employed 
only  on  high  festivals  associated  with  religion, 
hunting,  or  war,  attracts  even  a  kind  of  veneration  ; 
and  potent  chiefs  have  assumed  its  name  as  their 
title  of  honour. 

Canoes,  another  fabric  which  the  Indians  construct 


90  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

very  rudely,  are  yet  adapted  with  considerable  skill 
to  theii  purpose.  These  are  usually  framed  of  the 
bark  of  a  single  tree,  strengthened  at  the  centre 
with  ribs  of  tough  wood.  The  ends  are  of  bark 
only,  but,  being  curved  upward,  are  always  above 
water,  and  thus  remain  perfectly  tight.  Our  sailors 
can  scarcely  believe  such  nut-shells  safe  even  on 
the  smoothest  waters,  and  see  with  surprise  the  na- 
tives guiding  them  amid  stormy  waves,  where  their 
very  lightness  and  buoyancy  preserve  them  from 
sinking.  They  have  another  quality  of  great  ad- 
vantage in  the  devious  pursuits  of  the  owners ;  being 
so  extremely  light,  that  they  can  be  easily  conveyed 
on  the  shoulder  from  one  river  or  branch  of  a  lake 
to  another.  One  man,  it  is  said,  can  carry  on  his 
back  a  canoe  in  which  twelve  persons  may  navigate 
with  safety.* 

Having  taken  this  minute  survey  of  the  physical 
condition  of  the  Indians,  we  shall  proceed  to  an 
examination  of  their  social  condition.  The  funda- 
mental principle  of  their  polity  is  the  complete 
independence  of  every  individual,  his  right  to  do 
whatever  he  pleases,  be  it  good  or  bad,  nay,  even 
though  criminal  and  destructive.  When  any  one 
announces  an  intention  which  is  disagreeable  to  his 
neighbours,  they  dare  not  attempt  to  check  him  by 
reproach  or  coercion ;  these  would  only  rivet  his 
determination  more  stronjily.  Their  only  resource 
is  to  sooth  him,  like  a  spoiled  child,  by  kind  words, 
and  especially  by  gifts.  If,  notwithstanding,  he  pro- 
ceeds to  wound  or  murder  any  one,  the  public  look 
on  without  concern,  though  revenge  is  eagerly 
sought  by  the  kindred  of  the  injured  person. 

Notwithstanding  this  impunity,  which,  on  our  side 
of  the  Atlantic,  would  be  followed  by  the  most 
dreadful  consequences,  it  is  somewhat  mortifying 

♦  Charlevoix,  vol.ii.,  p.  127-130.  Weld,  p.  383-389.  Creux 
iu8,  p.  68.     Carver,  p.  46  231-233.     Adair,  p.  413-430. 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.        91 

to  the  pride  of  European  civilization  to  learn  that 
there  reigns  a  degree  of  tranquillity  greater  than 
the  strictest  police  can  preserve  with  us.  The  In- 
dians are  divided  into  a  number  of  little  nations  or 
tribes,  fiercely  hostile  to  each  other,  but  whose 
members  are  bound  among  themselves  by  the  strict- 
est union.  The  honour  and  welfare  of  the  clan  sup- 
ply their  ruling  principle,  and  are  cherished  with  an 
ardour  not  surpassed  in  the  most  brilliant  eras  of 
Greek  and  Roman  patriotism.  This  national  at- 
tachment forms  a  social  tie,  linking  the  members  to 
each  other,  and  rendering  exceedingly  rare,  not  only 
deeds  of  violence,  but  even  personal  quarrels,  and 
banishing  entirely  that  coarse  and  abusive  language 
which  is  so  prevalent  among  the  vulgar  in  more  en- 
lightened communities.  This  feeling,  added  to  the 
sentiment  of  dignity  and  self-command  considered 
suitable  to  the  character  of  a  warrior,  renders  their 
deportment  exceedingly  pleasing.  They  are  com- 
pletely free  from  that  false  shame  which  is  termed 
mauvaise  himte.  When  seated  at  table  with  Eu- 
ropeans of  the  highest  rank,  they  retain  the  most 
thorough  self-possession  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  by 
carefullv  observing  the  proceedings  of  the  other 
guests,  they  avoid  all  awkwardness  in  their  man- 
ners. Their  generosity,  too,  in  relieving  each  other's 
necessities,  scarcely  knows  any  bounds,  and  only 
stops  short  of  an  absolute  community  of  goods. 
No  member  of  a  tribe  can  be  in  the  least  danger  of 
starving  if  the  rest  have  vvherewith  to  supply  him. 
Children  rendered  orphans  by  the  casualties  to 
which  savage  life  is  subject,  are  immediately  taken 
in  charge  by  the  nearest  relative,  and  supplied  with 
everything  needful  as  abundantly  as  if  they  were 
his  own.  Nothing  gives  them  a  more  unfavourable 
opinion  of  the  Frent^h  and  English  than  to  see  one 
portion  revelling  in  abundance,  while  the  other  suf- 
fers the  extremities  nf  want ;  but  when  they  are 
told  that,  for  vyant  of  these  accommodations,  men 


92        THfi  Native  Indians  inhabiting 

are  seized  by  their  fellow-creatures  and  immured 
in  dungeons,  such  a  degree  of  barbarism  appears  to 
them  almost  incredible.  Whole  tribes,  when  obliged 
by  the  vicissitudes  of  war  to  seek  refuge  among 
their  neighbours,  are  received  with  unbounded  hos- 
pitality ;  habitations  and  lands  are  assigned  to  them, 
and  they  are  treated  by  their  new  friends  in  every 
respect  as  a  part  of  themselves.  It  may,  however, 
be  observed,  that  as  such  an  accession  of  numbers 
augments  the  military  strength  of  the  tribe,  there 
may  be  a  mixture  of  policy  in  this  cordial  recep- 
tion.* 

In  consequence  of  this  spirit  of  order  and  internal 
union,  the  imbounded  personal  freedom  which  marks 
their  social  condition  seldom  breaks  out  into  such 
crimes  as  would  disturb  the  public  peace.  Its  great- 
est evil,  of  which  we  shall  see  repeated  instances, 
is,  that  individuals,  actuated  by  revenge  or  a  spirit  of 
daring  enterprise,  think  themselves  justified  in  sur- 
prising and  murdering  a  hated  adversary.  From 
this  cause  every  treaty  between  the  tribes  is  ren- 
dered precarious  ;  though,  as  each  is  aware  of  these 
lawless  propensities,  room  is  left  for  mutual  expla- 
nation, so  that  particular  outrages  may  not  involve 
a  general  war.  This  circumstance  leads  us  to  no- 
tice, that  the  favourable  aspect  presented  by  the 
interior  of  these  communities  can  by  no  means  war- 
rant any  conclusion  as  to  the  superiority  of  savage 
life  when  compared  with  that  of  civilized  man.  On 
the  contrary,  the  most  perfect  form  of  government 
devised  by  the  human  being  in  the  state  of  nature, 
has  never  been  exempted  from  those  feelings  of  re- 
lentless enmity  and  continual  fear  with  which  bor- 
dering nations  regard  each  other.  These,  as  will 
appear  in  the  sequel,  often  impel  them  to  the  most 

*  Charlevoix,  vol.  ii ,  p.  .30-32,  86,  87.  Creuxius,  p.  72,  73. 
Carver,  p.  248,  412.  Adair,  p.  378,  412.  Missions  en  ia  Nou- 
vdle  France,  ans  1657,  1658,  p.  1^8. 


CANADA    AND    ITS    IJORDKRS.  93 

direful  crimes;  but  at  present  we  shall  proceed  with 
our  survey  of  their  domestic  usages. 

Some  writers  have  denied  that  there  exists  among 
the  Indians  anything  that  can  properly  be  termed  a 
matrimonial   union.     This,  however,  seems  only  a 
prejudice,  in  consequence  of  there   not  being  any 
regular  ceremony,  as  with  us.     The  man,  it  appears, 
after  having  made  an  arrangement  with  the  parent 
of  his  bride,  takes  her  home,  and  they  live  in  every 
respect  as  husband  and  wife.     The  mode  of  court- 
ship among  several  of  the  tribes   is  singular.     The 
wooer,  attended  often  by  several  comrades,  repairs 
at  midnight  to  his  fair  one's  apartment,  and  three 
times  twitches  her  nose.     If  she  be  inclined  to  listen 
to  his  suit,  she  rises;  otherwise  he  must   depart. 
Though  this  visit  be  so  very  unseasonable,  it  is  said 
to   be  rarely   accompanied  with  any   impropriety; 
the  missionaries,  however,  did  not  think  it  right  to 
sanction  such  freedom  in  their  converts.     The  pre- 
liminary step  is,  in  this  manner,  taken  with  the  lady, 
but  the  decision  still  rests  with  the  father,  to  whom 
the  suiter  now  applies.     Long  has  given  no  unpleas- 
ing  specimen  of  the  address  .     "  Father,  I  love  your 
daughter:  will  you  give  her  to  me,  that  the  small 
roots  of  her  heart  may  entangle  with  mine,  so  that 
the  strongest  wind  that  blows  may  never  separate 
them  V     He  offers,  at  the  same  time,  a  handsome 
present,  the  acceptance  of  which  is  considered  as 
sealing  the  union.     Considerable  discrepance  pre- 
vails in  the  descriptions,  and  apparently  in  the  prac- 
tice, as  applied  to  different  tribes  ;  yet,  on  the  whole, 
great  reserve  and  propriety  seem  to  mark  this  inter- 
course     The  young  men  of  the  Five  Nations  val- 
ued  themselves   highly  for  their  correct   conduct 
towards  the  other  sex.     Of  numerous  female  cap- 
tives who  fell  into  their  hands  during  a  long  series 
of  wars,  though  some  were  possessed  of  great  per- 
lonal  beauty,  no  one  had  to  complain  that  her  hon- 
our was  exposed  to  the  slightest  danger.     Tke  girls 


94        THE  Native  Indians  inhabiting 

themselves  are  not  always  quite  so  exemplary  ;  bu 
their  failures  are  viewed  with  indulgence,  and  form 
no  obstacle  to  marriage.  Once  united  by  that  tie, 
however,  a  strict  fidelity  is  expected  and  commonly 
observed.  The  husband,  generally  speaking,  is  not 
jealous,  unless  when  intoxicated;  but  when  his  sus- 
picions are  really  excited  regarding  the  conduct  of 
his  partner,  he  is  very  indignant,  beats  her,  bites  off 
her  nose,  and  dismisses  her  in  disgrace.  There  are 
occasional  intsances  of  a  divorce  being  inflicted 
without  any  assigned  reason ;  but  such  arbitrary 
proceeding  is  by  no  means  frequent.  As  the  wife 
performs  the  whole  labour,  and  furnishes  a  great 
part  of  the  subsistence,  she  is  usually  considered 
too  valuable  a  possession  to  be  rashly  parted  with. 
In  some  cases  these  domestic  drudges  become  even 
an  object  of  dispute  and  competition.  A  mission- 
ary mentions  a  woman,  who,  during  the  absence  of 
her  husband,  formed  a  new  connexion.  Her  first 
partner  having  returned,  without  being  agitated  by 
any  delicate  sensibilities,  demanded  her  back.  The 
question  was  referred  to  a  chief,  who  could  contrive 
no  better  scheme  than  that  of  placing  her  at  a  cer- 
tain distance  from  both,  and  decreeing  that  he  who 
should  first  reach  her  should  have  her ;  "  thus,"  says 
he,  "  the  wife  fell  to  him  who  had  the  best  legs." 
With  regard  to  polygamy,  the  usual  liberty  is  claim- 
ed, and  by  the  chiefs  in  the  west  and  the  south  it  is 
indulged  to  a  considerable  extent;  but  among  the 
tribes  on  the  lakes  the  practice  is  rare  and  limited. 
When  it  does  occur,  the  man  very  commonly  mar- 
ries his  wife's  sister,  and  even  her  whole  family,  on 
the  presumption,  we  may  suppose,  that  the  house- 
hold will  be  thereby  rendered  more  harmonious. 
The  Indian  is  said  never  to  betray  the  slightest 
symptom  of  tenderness  towards  his  wife  or  chil- 
dren. If  he  meets  them  on  his  return  from  a  dis- 
tant expedition,  he  proceeds  without  taking  the 
slightest  notice,  and  seats  hmiself  in  his  cabin  as  U 


CANADA     AND    ITS    BORDERS. 


95 


he  had  not  been  a  day  absent.  Yet  his  exertions 
for  their  welfare,  and  the  eagerness  with  which  he 
avenges  their  wrongs,  testify  that  his  apparent  apa- 
thy springs  only  from  pride  and  a  fancied  sense  of 
decorum.  It  is  equally  displayed  with  regard  to 
his  own  most  urgent  wants.  Though  he  may  have 
been  without  food  during  several  days,  and  enters  a 
neighbour's  house,  nothing  can  make  him  stoop  to 
ask  for  a  morsel.* 

The  rearing  (for  it  cannot  he  called  the  education) 
of  the  children  is  cliiefly  arranged  so  that  it  may 
cost  the  parents  the  least  possible  trouble  in  addition 
to  the  labour  of  procuring  their  subsistence.  The 
father  is  either  engrossed  by  war  and  hunting,  or 
resigned  to  total  indolence ;  while  the  mother,  op- 


Infant  in  a  Frame. 

pressed  by  various  toils,  cannot  devote  much  time 
to  the  cares  of  nurture.  The  infant,  therefore,  being 
fastened  with  pieces  of  skin  to  a  board  spread  with 
oft  moss,  is  laid  on  the  ground  or  suspended  to  the 
branch  of  a  tree,  where  it  swings  as  in  a  cradle,  an 

*  Iia  Potherie  Bacqueville  de,  Histoire  de  I'Anierique  Sep. 
tentnonale  (4  tomes  12ino,  Paris,  1074),  vol.  ii.,  p  22,31  Long, 
p.  93,  136.     Carver,  p.  230-241,  367-370,  410. 


96         THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

expedient  which  is  so  carefully  adopted  as  scarcely 
ever  to  be  attended  with  accident.  As  soon  as  the 
creatures  are  able  to  crawl  on  hands  and  feet,  they 
are  allowed  to  move  about  every  part  of  the  house 
and  vicinity,  like  a  cat  or  dog.  Their  favourite  re- 
sort is  the  border  of  the  river  or  lake,  to  which  an 
Indian  village  is  usually  adjacent,  and  where,  in  sum 
mer,  they  are  seen  all  day  long,  sporting  like  fishes 
As  reason  dawns,  they  enjoy  in  the  most  ample  de- 
gree that  independence  which  is  held  the  birthright 
of  their  tribe  ;  for,  whatever  extravagances  they  may 
indulge  in,  the  parents  never  take  any  steps  to  re- 
strain or  chastise  them.  The  mother  only  ventures 
to  give  her  daughter  some  delicate  reproach,  or 
throws  water  in  her  face,  which  is  said  to  produce  a 
powerful  effect.  The  youths,  however,  without  any 
express  instructions,  soon  imbibe  the  spirit  of  their 
forefathers.  Everything  they  see,  the  tales  which 
they  hear,  inspire  them  with  the  ardent  desire  to  be- 
come great  hunters  and  warriors.  Their  first  study, 
their  favourite  sport,  is  to  bend  the  bow,  to  wield 
the  hatchet,  and  practise  all  those  exercises  which 
are  to  be  their  glory  in  after-life.  As  manhood  ap- 
proaches, they  spontaneously  assume  that  serious 
character,  that  studied  and  stately  gravity,  of  which 
the  example  has  been  set  by  their  elders.* 

The  intellectual  character  of  the  American  savage 
presents  some  very  striking  peculiarities.  Con- 
sidering his  unfavourable  condition,  he  of  all  other 
human  beings  might  seem  doomed  to  make  the  near- 
est approach  to  the  brute ;  while,  in  point  of  fact, 
without  any  a^d  from  letters  or  study,  many  of  the 
higher  faculties  of  his  mind  are  developed  in  a  very 
remarkable  degree.  He  displays  a  decided  supe- 
riority over  the  uninstructed  labourer  in  a  civilized 
community,  whose  mental  energies  are  benumbed 
amid   the   daily  round  of  mechanical  occupation, 

*  Chateaubriand,  vol.  i.,  p.  129,  213.     Weld,  p.  387,  388 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.        97 

The  former  spends  a  great  part  of  his  life  in  arduous 
enterprises,  wliere  much  contrivance  is  requisite, 
and  whence  he  must  often  extricate  himself  by  pres- 
ence of  mind  and  iuLjenijity.  His  senses,  particu- 
larly those  of  seeing  and  smelling,  have  acquired  by 
practice  an  almost  preternatural  acuteness.  He  can 
trace  an  animal  or  a  foe  by  indications  which  to  a 
European  eye  would  be  wholly  imperceptible  ;  and 
in  his  wanderings  he  gatiiers  a  minute  acquaintance 
with  the  geography  of  the  countries  which  he  trav- 
erses. He  can  even  draw  a  rude  outline  of  them  by 
applying  a  mixture  of  charcoal  and  grease  to  pre- 
pared skins,  and  on  seeing  a  regular  map  he  soon 
understands  its  construction,  and  readily  finds  out 
places.  His  facility  in  discovering  the  most  direct 
way  to  spots  situated  at  the  distance  of  hundreds  of 
miles,  and  known  perhaps  only  by  the  report  of  his 
countrymen,  is  truly  astonishing.  It  has  been  as- 
cribed by  some  to  a  mysterious  and  supernatural 
instinct,  but  it  appears  to  be  achieved  by  merely  ob- 
serving the  different  aspect  of  the  trees  or  shrubs 
when  exposed  to  the  north  or  the  south,  as  also  the 
position  of  the  sun,  which  he  can  point  out,  although 
hidden  by  clouds.  Even  where  there  is  a  beaten 
track,  if  at  all  circuitous,  he  strikes  directly  through 
the  woods,  and  reaches  his  destination  by  the 
straightest  possible  line.* 

*  Other  faculties  of  a  higher  order  are  developed  by 
the  scenes  amid  which  the  life  of  savages  is  spent. 
They  are  divided  into  a  number  of  little  communi- 
ties, between  which  are  actively  carried  on  all  the 
relations  of  war,  negotiation,  treaty,  and  alliance. 
As  mighty  revolutions,  observes  an  eloquent  writer, 
take  place  in  these  kingdoms  of  wood  and  cities  of 
bark,  as  in  the  most  powerful  civilized  states.  To 
increase  the  influence  and  extend  the  possessions 
of  their  own  tribe,  to  humble  and,  if  possible,  to  de- 

*  Weld,  p.  391-394.     Long,  p.  83.    Carver,  p.  241,  242. 


98         THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

stroy  those  hostile  to  them,  are  the  constant  aims 
of  every  member  of  those  little  commonwealths. 
For  these  ends,  not  only  deeds  of  daring  valour 
are  achieved,  but  schemes  are  deeply  laid,  and  pur- 
sued with  the  most  accurate  calculcition.  There  is 
scarcely  a  refinement  in  European  diplomacy  to 
which  they  are  strangers.  The  French  once  made 
an  attempt  to  crush  the  confederacy  of  the  Five 
Nations  by  attacking  each  in  sm-cession;  but  as 
they  were  on  their  march  agamst  the  first  tribe,  they 
were  met  by  the  deputies  of  the  others,  v;ho  offered 
their  mediation,  intimating  that,  if  it  were  rejected, 
they  would  make  common  cause  with  the  one  threat- 
ened. That  association  also  showed  that  they  com- 
pletely understood  how  to  employ  the  hostility 
which  prevailed  between  their  enemy  and  the  Eng- 
lish for  promoting  their  own  aggrandizement.  Em- 
bassies, announced  by  the  calumet  of  peace,  are 
constantly  passing  from  one  tribe  to  another. 

The  same  political  circumstances  develop  in  an 
extraordinary  degree  the  powers  of  oratory;  for 
nothing  of  any  importance  is  transacted  without  a 
speech.  On  every  emergency  a  council  of  the  tribe 
is  called,  when  the  aged  and  wise  hold  long  delibera- 
tions for  the  public  weal.  The  best  speakers  are  de- 
spatched to  conduct  their  negotiations,  the  object  of 
wL.ch  is  unfolded  in  studied  harangues.  The  func- 
tions of  orator,  among  the  Five  Nations,  had  even 
become  a  separate  profession,  held  in  equal  or  higher 
honour  than  that  of  the  warrior ;  and  each  clan  ap- 
pointed the  most  eloquent  of  their  number  to  speak 
for  them  in  the  public  council.  Nay,  there  was  a 
general  orator  for  the  whole  confederacy,  who  could 
say  to  the  French  governor,  "  Ononthio,  lend  thine 
ear;  I  am  the  mouth  of  all  the  country;  you  hear 
all  the  Iroquois  in  hearing  my  word."  Decanesora, 
their  speaker  at  a  later  period,  was  trreatly  admired 
by  the  English,  and  his  bust  was  thought  to  resemble 
that  of  Cicero.    In  their  diplomatic  discourses,  each 


CANADA    AND    ITS    iJORKERS.  99 

pro[)osition  is  prefaced  by  the  delivery  of  a  belt  of 
wampuin,  of  wiiich  what  follows  is  understood  to  be 
the  explanation,  and  which  is  to  be  preserved  as  a 
.  record  of  the  conference.  The  orator  does  not  ex- 
;  ress  his  proposals  in  words  only,  but  gives  to  every 
sentence  its  appropriate  action.  If  he  threatens 
war,  he  wildly  brandi.shes  the  tomahawk ;  if  he 
solicits  alliance,  he  twines  his  arms  closely  with 
those  of  the  chief  whom  he  addresses;  and  if  he 
invites  friendly  intercourse,  he  assumes  all  the  atti- 
tudes of  one  who  is  forming  a  road  in  the  Indian 
manner,  by  cutting  down  the  trees,  clearing  them 
away,  and  carefully  removing  the  leaves  and  branch 
es.  To  a  French  writer,  who  witnessed  the  de- 
livery of  a  solemn  embassy,  it  suggested  the  idea  of 
a  company  of  actors  performing  on  a  stage.  So  ex- 
pressive are  their  gestures,  that  negotiations  have 
been  conducted  and  alliances  concluded  between 
petty  states  and  communities  vi^ho  understood  no- 
thing of  one  another's  language.* 

The  composition  of  the  Indian  orators  is  studied 
and  elaborate.  The  language  of  the  Iroquois  is 
even  held  to  be  susceptible  of  an  Attic  elegance, 
which  few  can  attain  so  fully  as  to  escape  all  crit- 
icism. It  is  figurative  in  the  highest  degree,  every 
notion  being  expressed  by  images  addressed  to  the 
•senses.  Thus,  to  throw  up  the  hatchet  or  to  put 
'on  the  great  caldron  is  to  begin  a  war  ;  to  throw  the 
hatchet  to  the  sky  is  to  wage  open  and  terrible  war  , 
to  take  off  the  caldron  or  to  bury  the  hatchet  is  to 
make  peace  ;  to  plant  the  tree  of  peace  on  the  high- 
est mountain  of  the  earth  is  to  make  a  general  paci- 
fication. To  throw  a  prisoner  into  the  caldron  is 
to  devote  him  to  torture  and  death  ;  to  take  him  out. 
is  to  pardon  and  receive  him  as  a  member  of  the 
community.  Ambassadors  coming  to  propose  a  full 
and  general  treaty  say,  "  We  rend  the  clouds  asun- 

♦  Missions  en  la  Nouveile  France,  an  1644,  p.  87-93,    Carver, 
p  260.     Colden,  vol.  i.,  p.  189,  et  seq.     Adair,  p.  79. 


100  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS   INHABITINO 

der,  and  drive  away  all  darkness  from  the  heavenst 
that  the  sun  of  peace  may  shine  with  brightness 
over  us  all."  On  another  occasion,  referring  to 
/  their  own  violent  conduct,  they  said,  '•  We  are  glad 
that  Assarigoa  will  bury  in  the  pit  what  is  past;  let 
the  earth  be  trodden  hard  over  it,  or,  rather,  let  a 
strong  stream  run  under  the  pit  to  wash  away  the 
evil."  They  afterward  added,  "  We  now  plant  a 
tree,  whose  top  will  reach  the  sun,  and  its  branches 
spread  far  abroad,  and  we  shall  shelter  ourselves  un- 
der it,  and  live  in  peace."  To  send  the  collar  un- 
der ground  is  to  carry  on  a  secret  negotiation ;  but 
when  expressing  a  desire  that  there  might  be  no  du- 
plicity or  concealment  between  them  and  the 
French,  they  said  that  "  they  wished  to  fix  the  sun 
in  the  top  of  the  heaven,  immediately  above  that 
pole,  that  it  might  beat  directly  down  and  leave  no- 
thing in  obscurity."  In  pledging  themselves  to  a  firm 
and  steady  peace,  they  declared  that  tliey  would  not 
only  throw  down  the  great  war-caldron,  and  cause 
all  the  water  to  flow  out,  but  would  break  it  in  pie- 
ces. This  disposition  to  represent  everything  by  a 
sensible  object  extends  to  matters  the  most  impor- 
tant. One  powerful  people  assumed  the  appellation 
of  Foxes,  while  another  gloried  in  that  of  Cats. 
Even  when  the  entire  nation  bore  a  different  appel- 
lation, separate  fraternities  distinguished  themselves 
as  the  tribe  of  the  Bear,  the  Tortoise,  and  the  Wolf. 
They  did  not  disdain  a  reference  even  to  inani- 
mate things.  The  Black  Caldron  was  at  one  time 
the  chief  warrior  of  the  Five  Nations ;  and  Red 
Shoes  was  a  person  of  distinction  well  known  to 
Long  the  traveller.  When  the  chiefs  concluded 
treaties  with  Europeans,  their  signature  consisted 
in  a  picture,  often  tolerably  well  executed,  of  the 
beast  or  object  after  which  they  chose  to  be  na- 
med.* 

*  La  Potherie,  preface  to  tome  iii.  Golden,  vol.  i.,  p.  15^ 
49,  175.  Missions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,  ans  1665,  1656,  p.  21. 
Weld,  p.  395. 


CANADA    AND   ITS    BORDERS.  101 

The  absence  among  these  tribes  of  any  tvritten  or 
even  pictorial  mode  of  recording  events,  was  sup- 
plied by  tbe  memories  of  their  old  men,  which  were 
so  retentive,  that  a  certain  writer  calls  them  living 
books.  Their  only  remembrancer  consisted  in  the 
wampum  belts  ;  of  which  one  was  appropriated  to 
each  division  of  a  speech  or  treaty,  and  had  seem- 
ingly a  powerful  effect  in  calling  it  to  recollection. 
On  the  close  of  the  transaction,  these  were  deposit- 
ed as  public  documents,  to  be  drawn  forth  on  greit 
occasions,  when  the  orators,  and  even  the  old  wom- 
en, could  repeat  verbatim  the  passage  to  which  each 
referred.  Europeans  were  thus  enabled  to  collect 
information  concerning  the  revolutions  of  different 
tribes,  for  several  ages  preceding  their  own  arri- 
val.* 

The  earliest  visiters  of  the  New-World,  on  see- 
nig  among  the  Indians  neither  priests,  temples,  idids, 
nor  sacrifices,  represented  them  as  a  people  wholly 
destitute  of  religious  opinions.  Closer  inquiry, 
however,  showed  that  a  belief  in  the  spiritual  world, 
however  imperfect,  had  a  commanding  influence 
over  almost  all  their  actions.  Their  creed  includes 
even  some  lofty  and  pure  conceptions.  Under  the 
title  of  the  Great  Spirit,  the  Master  of  Life,  the  ma- 
ker.of  heaven  and  earth,  they  distinctly  recognise  a 
supreme  ruler  of  the  universe  and  an  arbiter  of 
their  destiny.  A  party  of  them,  when  informed  by 
the  missionaries  of  the  existence  of  a  being  of  in- 
finite power,  who  had  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  with  one  consent  exclaimed,  '■'•  Alahocan  '.  At- 
ahocan  V  that  being  the  name  of  their  principal  dei- 
ty According  to  Long,  the  Lidians  among  whom 
he  resided  ascribe  every  event,  projjitious  or  unfor- 
tunate, to  the  favour  or  anger  of  the  Master  of  Life. 
They  address  him  for  their  daily  subsistence  ;  they 

*  Missions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,   ans  1C59,   lOGO,  p.  281 
WeW,  p.  389,  390. 


103  THE    NATIVE  INDIANS    INHABITING 

believe  him  to  convey  to  them  presence  of  mind  m 
battle ;  and  amid  tortures  they  thank  him  for  inspi- 
ring them  vk^ith  courage.  Yet  though  this  one  ele- 
vated and  just  conception  is  deeply  graven  on  their 
minds,  it  is  combined  with  others  which  show  all 
the  imperfection  of  unassisted  reason  in  attempting 
to  think  rightly  on  this  great  subject.  It  may  eve 
be  observed,  that  the  term,  rendered  into  our  Ian 
guage  "  great  spirit,"  does  not  realbr  convey  th 
idea  of  an  immaterial  nature.  It  imports  with  them 
merely  some  being  possessed  of  lofty  and  mysteri- 
ous powers,  and  in  this  sense  is  applied  to  men,  and 
even  to  animals.  The  brute  creation,  which  occu- 
pies a  prominent  place  in  all  their  ideas,  is  often 
viewed  by  them  as  invested,  to  a  great  extent,  with 
supernatural  powers;  an  extreme  absurdity,  which, 
however,  they  share  with  the  civilized  creeds  of 
Egypt  and  India. 

When  the  missionaries,  on  their  first  arrival,  at- 
tempted to  form  an  idea  of  the  Indian  mythology. 
It  appeared  to  them  extremely  complicated,  more 
especially  because  those  who  attempted  to  explain 
it  had  no  fixed  opinions.  Each  man  differed  from 
his  neighbour,  and  at  another  time  from  himself ;  and 
when  the  discrepances  were  pointed  out,  no  attempt 
was  made  to  reconcile  them.  The  southern  trihes, 
who  had  a  more  settled  faith,  are  described  by  Adair 
as  intoxicated  with  spiritual  pride,  and  denouncing 
even  their  European  allies  as  "  the  accursed  peo- 
ple." The  native  Canadian,  on  the  contrary,  is  said 
to  have  been  so  little  tenacious,  that  he  would  at 
any  time  renounce  all  his  theological  errors  for  a 
pipe  of  tobacco,  though,  as  soon  as  it  was  smoked, 
he  immediately  relapsed.  An  idea  was  found  prev- 
alent respecting  a  certain  mystical  animal,  called 
Mesou  or  Messessagen,  who,  when  the  earth  was 
buried  in  water,  had  drawn  it  up  and  restored  it. 
Others  spoke  of  a  contest  between  the  hare,  the 
fox,  the  beaver,  and  the  seal,  for  the  empire  of  tJis 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.       103 

world  Aiiioiig  tlie  principal  nations  of  Canada, 
the  hare  is  thought  to  have  attained  a  decided  pre- 
eminence ;  and  hence  the  Great  Spirit  and  the  Great 
Hare  are  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  terms. 
What  sfiould  have  raised  this  creature  to  such  dis- 
tinction seems  rather  unaccountable  ;  unless  it  were 
that  its  extreme  swiftness  might  appear  something 
supernatural.  Among  the  Ottowas  alone  the  heav- 
enly bodies  became  an  object  of  veneration  ;  the 
sun  appears  to  rank  as  their  supreme  deity.* 

To  dive  into  the  abyss  of  futurity  has  always  been 
a  favourite  object  of  superstition.  It  has  been  at- 
tempted by  various  means  ;  but  the  Indian  seeks  it 
chiefly  through  his  dreams,  wliich  always  bear  with 
him  a  sacred  character.  Before  engaging  in  any  high 
undertaking,  especially  in  hunting  or  war,  the  dreams 
of  the  principal  chiefs  are  carefully  watched  and  stu- 
diously examined  ;  and  according  to  the  interpreta- 
tion their  conduct  is  guided.  A  whole  nation  has 
been  set  in  motion  by  the  sleeping  fancies  of  a  single 
man.  Sometimes  a  person  imagines  in  his  sleep 
that  he  has  been  presented  with  an  article  of  value 
by  another,  who  then  cannot,  without  impropriety, 
leave  the  omen  unfulfilled.  When  Sir  William  .Tohn- 
son,  during  the  American  war,  was  negotiating  an 
alliance  with  a  friendly  tribe,  the  chief  confidential- 
ly disclosed  that,  during  his  slumbers,  he  had  been 
favoured  with  a  vision  of  Sir  William  bestowing  upon 
him  the  rich  laced  coat  which  formed  his  full  dress. 
The  fulfilment  of  this  revelation  was  very  inconve- 
nient ;  yet,  on  being  assured  that  it  positively  oc- 
curred, the  English  commander  found  it  advisable 
to  resign  his  uniform.  Soon  after,  however,  he  un- 
foldsd  to  the  Indian  a  dream  with  which  he  had  him- 
self been  favoured,  and  in  which  the  former  was  seen 
presenting  him  with  a  large  tract  of  fertile  land  most 
commodiously  situated.     The  native  ruler  admitted 

♦  Adair,  p.  32.  La  Potherie,  tome  ii.,  p.  3-8,  11,  12.  Long: 
p.  139.     Creuxius,  p.  84. 


104        THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITINO 

that,  since  the  vision  had  been  vouchsafed,  it  must 
be  realized,  yet  earnestly  proposed  to  cease  this  mu- 
tual dreaming,  which  he  found  had  turned  much  to 
his  own  disadvantage.* 

The  manitou  is  an  object  of  peculiar  veneration; 
and  the  fixing  upon  this  guardian  power  is  not  only 
the  most  important  event  in  the  liistory  of  a  youth, 
but  even  constitutes  his  initiation  into  active  life. 
As  a  preliminary,  his  face  is  painted  black,  and  he 
undergoes  a  severe  fast,  which  is,  if  possible,  pro- 
longed for  eight  days.  This  is  preparatory  to  the 
dream  in  which  he  is  to  behold  the  idol  destined  ever 
after  to  afford  him  aid  and  protection.  In  this  slate 
of  excited  expectation,  and  while  every  nocturnal 
vision  is  carefully  watched,  there  seldom  fails  to  oc- 
cur to  his  mind  something  which,  as  it  makes  a  deep 
impression,  is  pronounced  his  manitou.  Most  com- 
monly it  is  a  trifling  and  even  fantastic  article  ;  the 
head,  beak,  or  claw  of  a  bird,  the  hoof  of  a  cow,  or 
even  a  piece  of  wood.  However,  having  undergone 
a  thorough  perspiration  in  one  of  their  vapour-baths, 
he  is  laid  on  his  back,  and  a  picture  of  it  is  drawn 
upon  his  breast  by  needles  of  fish-  bone  dipped  in  ver- 
milion. A  good  specimen  of  the  original  being  pro- 
cured, it  is  carefully  treasured  up ;  and  to  it  he  ap- 
plies in  every  emergency,  hoping  that  it  will  inspire 
his  dreams,  and  secure  to  him  every  kind  of  good 
fortune.  When,  however,  notwithstanding  every 
means  of  propitiating  its  favour,  misfortunes  befall 
him,  the  manitou  is  considered  as  having  exposed 
itself  to  just  and  serious  reproach.  He  begins  with 
remonstrances,  representing  all  that  has  been  done 
for  it,  the  disgrace  it  incurs  by  not  protecting  its  vo- 
tary, and,  finally,  the  danger  that,  in  case  of  repeat- 
ed neglect,  it  may  be  discarded  for  another.  Nor 
is  this  considered  merely  as  an  empty  threat ;  for  if 
the  manitou  is  judged  incorrigible,  it  is  thrown  away ; 

*  Charlevoix,  vol.  ii.,  p.  156-158  Creuxius,  p.  84.  Long, 
p.  89. 


CANADA    AND    ITS    BORDERS.  105 

and  by  means  of  a  fresh  course  of  fasting,  dreaming, 
sweating,  and  painting,  anotlier  is  installed,  from 
whom  better  success  may  be  hoped.* 

Tlie  absence  of  temples,  worship,  sacrifices,  and 
all  the  observances  to  which  superstition  prompts 
the  untutored  mind,  is  a  remarkable  circumstance, 
and,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  led  the  early  vis- 
iters to  believe  that  the  Indians  were  strangers  lo 
all  religious  ideas.  Yet  the  missionaries  found  room 
to  suspect  that  some  of  their  great  feasts,  in  which 
everything  presented  must  be  eaten,  bore  an  idola- 
trous character,  and  were  held  in  honour  of  the  Great 
Hare.  Tlie  Ottavvas,  whose  mythological  system 
seems  to  have  been  the  most  complicated,  were  wont 
to  keep  a  regular  festival  to  celebrate  the  beneficence 
of  the  sun;  on  which  occasion  the  luminary  was 
told  that  tills  service  was  in  return  for  the  good  hunt- 
ing he  had  procured  for  his  people,  and  as  an  en- 
couragement to  persevere  in  his  friendly  cares. 
They  were  also  observed  to  erect  an  idol  in  the  mid- 
dle of  their  town,  and  sacrifice  to  it ;  but  such  cere- 
monies were  by  no  means  general.  On  first  wit- 
nessmg  Christian  worship,  the  only  idea  suggested 
by  it  was  that  of  their  a.sking  some  temporal  good, 
which  was  either  granted  or  refused. f  The  mission- 
aries mention  two  Hurons,  who  arrived  from  the 
woods  soon  after  the  congregation  had  assembled. 
Standmg  without,  they  began  to  speculate  what  it 
was  the  white  men  were  asking,  and  then  whether 
they  were  getting  it.  As  the  service  continued  be- 
yond expectation,  it  was  concluded  they  were  not 
getting  it ;  and  as  the  devotional  duties  still  pro- 
ceeded, they  admired  the  perseverance  with  which 
this  rejected  suit  was  urged.  At  length,  when  the 
vesper  hymn  began,  one  of  the  savages  observed  to 

»  Charlevoix,  vol.  ii ,  p  U5,  146.     La  Potherie,  vol  ji.  p.  11, 
t  Miasions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,  an  1635,  p.  72. 


106  THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

tlie  other :  "  Listen  to  them  now  in  despair,  crying 
with  all  their  might."* 

The  grand  doctrine  of  a  life  beyond  the  grave  was, 
among  all  the  tribes  of  America,  most  deeply  cher- 
ished and  most  sincerely  believed. f  They  had  even 
formed  a  distinct  idea  of  the  region  wliither  they 
hoped  to  be  transported,  and  of  the  new  and  happier 
mode  of  existence,  free  from  those  wars,  tortures, 
and  cruelties  which  throw  so  dark  a  shade  over 
their  lot  upon  earth.  Yet  their  conceptions  on  this 
subject  were  by  no  means  either  exalted  or  spiritu- 
alized. They  expected  simply  a  prolongation  of 
their  present  life  and  enjoyments,  under  more  fa- 
vourable circumstances,  and  with  the  same  objects 
furnished  in  greater  choice  and  abundance.  In  that 
brighter  land  the  sun  ever  shines  unclouded,  the  for- 
ests abound  with  deer,  the  lakes  and  rivers  with  fish  ; 
benefits  which  are  farther  enhanced  in  their  imagin- 
ation by  a  faithful  wife  and  dutiful  children.  They 
do  not  reach  it,  however,  till  after  a  journey  of  sev- 
eral months,  and  encountering  various  obstacles;  a 
broad  river,  a  chain  of  lofty  mountains,  and  the  at- 
tack of  a  furious  dog.  This  favoured  country  lies 
far  in  the  west,  at  the  remotest  boundary  of  the  earth, 
which  is  supposed  to  terminate  in  a  steep  precipice, 
with  the  ocean  rolling  beneath.  Sometimes,  in  the 
too  eager  pursuit  of  game,  the  spirits  fall  over,  and 
are  converted  into  fishes.  The  local  position  of 
their  paradise  appears  connected  with  certain  ob- 
scure intimations  received  from  their  wandering 
neighbours  of  the  Mississippi,  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  the  distant  shores  of  the  Pacific.  This  system 
of  belief  labours  under  a  great  defect,  inasmuch  as 
it  scarcely  connects  felicity  in  the  future  world  with 
virtuous  conduct  in  the  present.     The  one  is  held  to 

*  La  Potherie.  vol.  ii.,  p.  12.  Missions  en  la  Nouvelle  France 
an  1667,  p.  53-55  ;  an  1635,  p.  72. 

<•  Aninioruin  immortaliiatem  persuasissimam  quidein  omnea 
babeiit.    Creuxius,  p.  87. 


CANADA    AND    ITS    bORDERS.  107 

be  simply  a  continuation  of  the  other ;  and  under  this 
impression,  the  arms,  ornaments,  and  everything 
tliat  had  contributed  to  the  welfare  of  the  deceased, 
are  interred  along  with  him.  This  supposed  assu- 
rance of  a  future  life,  so  comformable  to  their  gross 
habits  and  conceptions,  was  found  by  the  mission- 
aries a  serious  obstacle  when  they  attempted  to  al-l 
lure  them  by  the  hope  of  a  destiny,  purer  and  high-[ 
er  indeed,  but  less  accordant  with  their  untutored  i 
conceptions.  Upon  being  told  that  in  the  promised 
world  they  woidd  neither  hunt,  eat,  drink,  nor  mar- 
ry, many  of  them  declared  that,  far  from  endeavour- 
ing to  reach  such  an  abode,  they  would  consider 
their  arrival  there  as  the  greatest  calamity.  Men- 
tion is  made  of  a  Huron  girl  whom  one  of  the  Chris- 
tian ministers  was  endeavouring  to  instruct,  and 
whose  first  question  was  what  she  would  find  to 
eat.  The  answer  being  "  Nothing,"  she  then  ask- 
ed what  she  would  see  ;  and  being  informed  that  she 
would  see  the  Maker  of  heaven  and  earth,  she  ex- 
pressed herself  much  at  a  loss  how  she  should  ad- 
dress him.* 

Another  sentiment,  congenial  with  that  now  de- 
scribed, is  most  deeply  rooted  in  the  mind  of  the 
Indians.  This  is  reverence  for  the  dead,  with  which 
Chateaubriand,  though  somewhat  hastily,  considers 
them  more  deeply  imbued  than  any  other  people. f 
During  life  they  are  by  no  means  lavish  in  their  ex- 
pressions of  tenderness,  but  on  the  hour  of  final 
separation  it  is  displayed  with  extraordinary  force. 
When  any  member  of  a  family  becomes  seriously 
ill,  all  the  resources  of  magic  and  medicine  are  ex- 
hausted in  order  to  procure  his  recovery.  When 
the  fatal  moment  arrives,  all  the  kindred  burst  into 
loud  lamentations,  which  continue  till  some  person 
possessing  the  requisite  authority  desires  them  to 

*  Missions  en  la  Nouvelie  France,  an  1637,  p.  121,  170:  an 
1635,  p.  41.     Creuxius,  p.  87.     Charlevoix,  vol.  li.,  p  154,  154 
t  Cura  ingens  mortuorum.    Creuxiua.  p.  91. 


108        THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

cease.  These  expressions  of  grief,  however,  are 
renewed  for  a  considerable  time  at  sunrise  and 
sunset.  After  three  days  the  funeral  takes  place, 
when  all  the  provisions  which  the  family  can  pro- 
cure are  expended  in  a  feast,  to  which  the  neigh- 
bours are  generally  invited ;  and,  although  on  all 
solemn  occasions  it  is  required  that  everything 
should  be  eaten,  the  relations  do  not  partake.  These 
last  cut  off  their  hair,  cover  their  heads,  paint  their 
faces  of  a  black  colour,  and  continue  long  to  deny 
themselves  every  species  of  amusement.*  The  de- 
ceased is  then  uiterred  with  his  arms  and  ornaments, 
his  face  painted,  and  his  person  attired  in  the  richest 
robes  which  they  can  furnish.  It  was  the  opinion 
of  one  of  the  early  missionaries,  that  the  chief  ob- 
ject of  the  Hurons  in  their  traffic  with  the  French 
was  to  procure  materials  for  honouring  their  dead; 
and,  as  a  proof  of  this,  many  of  them  have  been 
seen  shivering  half  naked  in  the  cold,  while  their 
hut  contained  rich  robes  to  be  wrapped  round  them 
after  their  decease.  The  body  is  placed  in  the  tomb 
in  an  upright  posture,  and  skins  are  carefully  spread 
round  it,  so  that  no  part  may  touch  the  earth.  This, 
however,  is  by  no  means  the  final  ceremony,  being 
followed  by  another  still  more  solemn  and  singular. 
Every  eighth,  tenth,  or  twelfth  year,  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  different  nations,  is  celebrated  the 
festival  of  the  dead  ;  and,  till  then,  the  souls  are  sup- 
posed to  hover  round  their  former  tenement,  and  not 
to  depart  for  their  final  abode  m  the  west.  On  this 
occasion  the  people  march  in  procession  to  the 
places  of  interment,  open  the  tombs,  and.  on  be- 
holding the  mortal  remains  of  tlieir  friends,  continue 
some  time  fixed  in  mournful  silence.  The  women 
then  break  out  into  loud  cries,  and  the  party  begin 
to  collect  the  bones,  removing  every  remnant  of 
flesh.     The  remains  are  then  wrapped  in  fresh  and 

•  Charlevoix,  vol.  ii.,  p.  191. 


CANADA     AND    ITS    BORDKRS.  U)9 

valuable  robes,  and  conveyed  amid  continual  lam- 
entation I'j  the  family-cabin.  A  feast  is  tlien  given, 
followed  during  several  days  by  dances,  games,  and 
prize-combats,  to  which  strangers  often  repair  from 
a  great  distance.  Tliis  mode  of  celebration  cer- 
tainly accords  very  ill  with  the  sad  occasion ;  yet 
the  Greek  and  Roman  obsequies  were  solemnized 
in  a  similar  manner;  nay,  in  many  parts  of  Scot- 
land, till  very  recently,  they  were  accompanied  by 
festival,  and  often  by  revelry.  The  relics  are  then 
carried  to  the  council- house  of  the  nation,  where 
they  are  hung  for  exhibition  along  the  walls,  with 
fresh  presents  destined  to  be  interred  along  with 
them.  Sometimes  they  are  even  displayed  from 
village  to  village.  At  length,  being  deposited  in  a 
pit  previously  dug  in  the  eanh,  and  lined  with  the 
richest  furs,  they  are  finally  entombed.  Tears  and 
lamentations  are  again  lavished ;  and  during  a  few 
days  food  is  brought  to  the  place.  The  bones  of 
their  fathers  are  considered  by  the  Indians  the 
strongest  ties  to  their  native  soil;  and  when  calam- 
ity forces  them  to  quit  it,  these  mouldering  frag- 
ments are,  if  possible,  conveyed  along  with  them.* 
Under  the  head  of  religious  riles  we  may  include 
medicine,  which  is  almost  entirely  within  the  do- 
main of  superstition.  The  great  warmth  of  affection 
which,  amid  their  apparent  apathy,  the  natives  cher- 
ish for  each  other,  urges  them,  when  their  friends 
are  seriously  ill,  to  seek  with  the  utmost  eagerness 
for  a  remedy.  An  order  of  men  has  thus  arisen  en- 
tirely different  from  the  rest  of  the  society,  uniting 
the  characters  of  priests,  physicians,  sorcerers,  and 
sages.  Nor  are  they  quite  strangers  to  some  branch- 
es of  the  healing  art.  in  external  hurts  or  wounds, 
the  cause  of  which  is  obvious,  they  apply  various 
simples  of  considerable  power,  chiefly  drawn  from 
the  vegetable   world.      Chateaubriand   enumerates 

•  (.niateauhriand,  vol.  i.,  p.  215.     Creuxius,  p.  91.     Charle 
voii,  vol.  11.,  p.  186,  187 ;  193-195. 

I.— I 


110        THE    NATIVE    INDlAMh    INHABITING 

the  ginseng  of  the  Chinese,  the,  sassafras,  the  three- 
leaved  hedisaroii,  and  a  tall  shrub  called  bellis ;  with 
decoctions  from  which  they  cure  wounds  and  ulcers 
in  a  surprising  manner.  With  sharp-pointed  bones 
they  scarify  inflamed  or  rheumatic  parts;  and  shells 
of  gourds,  filled  with  combustible  matters,  serve  in- 
stead of  cupping-glasses.  They  learned  the  art  of 
bleeding  from  the  French,  but  employed  it  some- 
times rashly  and  fatally,  by  opening  the  vein  in  the 
forehead  :  they  now  understand  it  better,  but  their 
favourite  specific  in  all  internal  complamts  is  the 
vapour-bath.  To  procure  this,  a  small  hut  or  shed 
is  framed  of  bark  or  branches  of  trees,  covered 
with  skins,  and  made  completely  tight  on  every 
side,  leaving  only  a  small  hole,  through  which  the 
patient  is  admitted.  By  throwing  red-hot  stones 
into  a  pot  of  water,  it  is  made  to  boil,  and  thus  emit 
a  warm  steam,  which,  filling  the  hut,  throws  the 
patient  into  a  most  profuse  perspiration.  When  he 
is  completely  bathed  in  it,  he  rushes  out,  even  should 
it  be  in  the  depth  of  winter,  and  throws  himself  into 
the  nearest  pond  or  river;  and  this  exercise,  which 
we  should  be  apt  to  think  sufficient  to  produce  death, 
is  proved,  by  their  example  as  well  as  that  of  the 
J  Russians,  to  be  safe  and  salutary.  As  a  very  large 
'proportion  of  their  maladies  arise  from  cold  and 
obstructed  perspiration,  this  remedy  is  by  no  means 
ill  chosen.  They  attach  to  it,  however,  a  supernat- 
ural influence,  calling  it  the  sorcerer's  bath,  and 
employ  it  not  only  in  the  cure  of  diseases,  but  in 
opening  their  minds  whenever  they  are  to  hold  a 
council  on  great  affairs,  or  to  engage  in  any  impor- 
tant undertaking.* 

All  cases  of  internal  malady  or  of  obscure  origin 
are  ascribed  without  hesitation  to  the  secret  agency 
of  malignant  powers  or  spirits.  The  physician,  there- 
fore, must  then  invest  himself  with  his  mystic  char- 

♦  Chateaubriand,  vol.  i.,  p.  247-249.     Creuxius,  p.  58,  59 
Carver,  p.  390,  391.    Long,  p.  46,  100. 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.       11 

acter,  and  direct  all  his  eflbrls  against  these  invisible 
enemies.  His  proceedings  are  various,  and  prompt- 
ed seemingly  b\r  a  mixture  of  delusion  and  impos- 
ture. On  his  first  arrival,  he  begins  to  sing  and 
dance  round  the  patient,  invoking  his  god  with  loud 
cries.  Then,  pretending  to  search  out  the  seat  of 
the  enchantment,  he  feels  his  body  all  over,  till 
cries  seem  to  indicate  the  bewitched  spot.  He  then 
rushes  upon  it  like  a  madman  or  an  enraged  dog, 
tears  it  with  his  teeth,  and  often  pretends  to  show  a 
small  bone  or  other  object  which  he  has  extracted, 
and  in  which  the  evil  power  had  been  lodged.  His 
disciples  next  day  renew  the  process,  and  the  whole 
'aniily  join  in  the  chorus,  so  that,  setting  aside  the 
disease,  a  frame  of  iron  would  appear  necessary  to 
withstand  the  remedies.  Another  contrivance  is 
to  surround  the  cabin  with  men  of  straw  and  wood- 
en masks  of  the  most  frightful  shapes,  in  hopes  of 
scaring  away  the  mysterious  tormentor.  Some- 
times a  painted  image  is  formed,  which  the  doctor 
pierces  with  an  arrow,  pretending  that  he  has  there- 
by vanquished  the  evil  spirit.  On  other  occasions 
he  professes  to  discover  a  mysterious  desire,  which 
exists  in  the  patient  unknown  to  himself,  for  some 
particular  object ;  and  this,  however  distant  or  diffi- 
cult of  attainment,  the  poor  family  strain  all  their 
efforts  to  procure.  It  is  alleged,  that  when  the  mala- 
dy appears  hopeless,  he  fixes  upon  something  com- 
pletelj''  beyond  reach,  the  want  of  which  is  then  rep- 
resented as  the  cause  of  death.  The  deep  faith 
reposed  in  these  preposterous  remedies  caused  to 
the  missionaries  much  difficulty  even  with  the 
most  intelligent  converts.  When  a  mother  found 
one  of  her  children  dangerously  ill,  her  pagan  neigh- 
bours came  round  and  assured  her,  that  if  she  would 
allow  it  to  be  blown  upon,  and  danced  and  howled 
round  in  the  genuine  Indian  manner,  there  would 
be  no  doubt  of  a  speedy  recovery.  They  er- 
hortcd  her  to  take  it  into  the  woods,  where  the 


112        THE    N..T1VE    INDIANS    I^HABiTING 

black-robes,  as  they  called  the  Christian  priests, 
would  not  be  able  to  find  her.  The  latter  could  not 
fully  undeceive  their  disciples,  because  in  that  less 
enlightened  age  they  themselves  w^ere  impressed 
with  the  notion  that  the  magicians  communicated 
and  derived  aid  from  the  Prince  of  Darkness.  All 
they  could  do,  therefore,  was  to  exhort  them  reso- 
lutely to  sacrifice  any  benefit  that  might  be  derived 
from  so  unholy  a  source.  This,  however,  was  a 
hard  duty  ;  and  they  record  with  pride  the  example 
of  a  Huron  wife,  who,  though  much  attached  to  her 
husband,  and  apparently  convinced  that  he  could  be 
cured  by  this  impious  process,  chose  rather  to  lose 
him.  In  other  respects  the  missionaries  suffered 
from  the  superstitious  creed  of  the  natives,  who, 
even  when  unconverted,  believed  them  to  possess 
supernatural  powers,  which,  it  was  suspected,  they 
sometimes  employed  to  introduce  the  epidemic  dis- 
eases with  which  the  country  was  from  time  to 
time  afflicted.  They  exclaimed,  it  was  not  the  de- 
mons that  made  so  many  die,  it  was  prayers,  images, 
and  baptism  ;  and  when  a  severe  pestilential  disorder 
followed  the  murder  of  a  Frenchman  who  fell  by 
their  hands,  they  imagined  that  the  priests  were 
thus  avenging  the  death  of  their  countryman.* 

We  have  still  to  describe  the  most  prominent  ob- 
ject of  the  Indian's  passions  and  pursuits,  his  war- 
fare. It  is  that  which  presents  him  under  the 
darkest  aspect,  effacing  almost  all  his  fine  quali- 
ties, and  assimilating  his  nature  to  that  of  fiends. 
While  the  most  cordial  union  reigns  between  the 
members  of  each  tribe,  they  have  neighbours  whom 
they  regard  with  the  deepest  enmity,  and  for  whose 
extermination  they  continually  thirst.  The  in- 
tense excitement  which  war  affords,  and  the  glory 

*  Missions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,  an  1685,  part  hi.,  p.  155, 
217;  ans  1642,  1643,  p.  49;  an  1637,  part  hi.,  p.  216,  217;  part 
ii.,  p.  238,  &c.  La  Potherie,  vol.  u.,  p.  36-40.  Charlevoix,  vol 
M.,  p.  17&-180. 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.       113 

wliich  rewards  its  achievements,  probably  give  the 
primary  impulse  ;  but  after  hostilities  have  begun, 
the  ieclinsT  which  keeps  tlieni  alive  is  revenge. 
Every  Indian  who  falls  into  the  power  of  an  enemy, 
and  suffers  the  dreadful  fate  to  which  the  vanquish- 
ed are  doomed,  must  have  his  ghost  appeased  by  a 
victim  from  that  hostile  race.  Thus  every  contest 
generates  another  and  a  more  deeply  imbittered 
one.  Nor  are  they  strangers  to  those  more  refined 
motives  which  urge  civilized  nations  to  take  arms — 
the  extension  of  their  boundaries,  an  object  pursued 
with  ardent  zeal,  and  the  power  of  their  tribe,  which 
last  they  seek  to  promote  by  incorporating  in  its 
ranks  the  defeated  bands  of  their  antagonists.  Per- 
sonal dislike  and  the  love  of  distinction  often  impel 
individuals  to  make  inroads  into  a  hostile  territory 
even  contrary  to  the  general  wish  ;  but  when  war 
is  to  be  waged  by  the  whole  nation,  more  enlarged 
riews,  connected  with  its  interest  and  aggrandize- 
ment, guide  the  decision.  To  most  savages,  how- 
ever, long-continued  peace  becomes  irksome  and 
unpopular;  and  the  prudence  of  the  aged  can  with 
difficulty  restrain  the  fire  of  the  young,  who  thirst 
for  adventure. 

As  soon  as  the  determination  has  been  formed, 
the  war-chief,  to  whom  the  voice  of  the  nation 
assigns  the  supremacy,  enters  on  a  course  of  solemn 
preparation.  This  consists  not,  however,  in  provi- 
ding arms  or  supplies  for  the  campaign,  for  these 
are  comprised  in  the  personal  resources  of  each  in- 
dividual. He  devotes  himself  to  observances  which 
are  meant  to  propitiate  or  learn  the  will  of  the 
Great  Spirit,  who,  when  considered  as  presiding  over 
the  destinies  of  war,  is  named  Areskoui.  He  be- 
gins by  marching  three  times  round  his  winter- 
house,  spreading  the  great  bloody  flag,  variegated 
with  deep  tints  of  black.  As  soon  as  the  young 
warriors  see  this  signal  of  death,  they  crowd  around, 
istening  to  the  oration  by  which  he  summons  them 


114        THE    NAl'lVli    INUiANci    INHABITING 

to  the  field  :  "  Comrades,"  he  exclaims,  "  the  blood 
of  our  countrymen  is  yet  unavenged  ;  their  bones 
lie  uncovered  ;  their  spirits  cry  to  us  from  the  tomb. 
Youths,  arise  !  anoint  your  hair,  paint  your  faces, 
^et  your  songs  resound  through  the  forest,  and  con- 
*  ole  the  dead  with  the  assurance  that  they  shall  be 
avenged.  Youths,  follow  me,  while  I  march  through 
tlie  war-path  to  surprise  our  enemies,  to  eat  their 
flesh,  to  drink  their  blood,  and  tear  them  limb  from 
limb!  We  shall  return  triumphant ;  or,  should  we 
fall,  this  belt  will  record  our  valour."  The  wam- 
pum, that  grand  symbol  of  Indian  policy,  is  then 
thrown  on  the  ground.  Many  desire  to  lift  it ;  but 
this  privilege  is  reserved  for  some  chief  of  high  rep- 
utation, judged  worthy  to  fill  the  post  of  second 
in  command.  The  leader  now  commences  his  se- 
ries of  mystic  observances.  He  is  painted  all  over 
black,  and  enters  on  a  strict  fast,  never  eating,  nor 
even  sitting  down,  till  after  sunset.  From  time  to 
time  he  drinks  a  decoction  of  consecrated  herbs, 
with  the  view  of  giving  vivacity  to  his  dreams, 
which  are  carefully  noted,  and  submitted  to  the  de- 
liberation of  the  sages  and  old  men.  When  a  war- 
like spirit  is  in  the  ascendant,  it  is  understood  that 
either  their  tenour  or  their  interpretation  betokens 
success.  The  powerful  influence  of  the  vapour- 
bath  is  also  employed.  After  these  solemn  prelimi- 
naries, a  copious  application  of  warm  water  re- 
moves the  deep  black  coating,  and  he  is  painted 
afresh  in  bright  and  varied  colours,  among  which 
red  predominates.  A  huge  fire  is  kindled,  whereon 
is  placed  the  great  war-caldron,  into  which  every 
one  present  throws  something  ;  and  if  any  allies, 
invited  by  a  belt  of  wampum  and  bloody  hatchet  to 
devour  the  flesh  and  drink  the  blood  of  the  enemy 
have  accepted  the  summons,  they  send  some  ingre- 
dients to  be  also  cast  in.  The  chief  then  announ- 
ces the  enterprise  by  singing  a  war-song,  nevur 
sounded  but  on  such  occasions,  and  his  example  is 


canai».\   and  its   bohuers.  115 

followed  by  ail  the  warriurs,  who  join  in  the  mili- 
tary (lance  ;  recounting  their  former  exploits,  and 
dilating  on  those  which  they  hope  to  achieve.  They 
now  proceed  to  ;irin,  suspeii-ling  the  bow  and  quiver, 
or,  more  frequently,  the  musket,  from  the  shoulder, 
the  hatchet  or  tomahawk  from  the  hand,  while  the 
scalping-knife  is  stuck  in  the  girdle.  A  portion  of 
parched  corn  or  sag;imity,  [>repared  for  the  purpose, 
is  received  from  the  women,  who  frequently  bear  it 
to  a  considerable  distance.  But  the  most  important 
operation  is  the  collection  of  the  manitous  or 
guardian  spirits,  to  be  placed  in  a  common  box, 
which  is  looked  to  as  a  protecting  power.  The  fe- 
males, during  these  preparations,  have  been  busily 
negotiating  for  a  supply  of  captives,  on  whom  to 
wreak  their  vengeance  and  appease  the  shades  of 
their  fallen  kindred;  sometimes  also  with  the  more 
merciful  view  of  supplying  their  place.  Tenderer 
feelings  arise  as  the  moment  approaches  when  the 
warriors  must  depart,  perhaps  to  return  no  more, 
and  it  may  be  to  endure  the  same  dreadful  fate 
which  they  are  imprecating  on  others.  The  lead- 
er, having  made  a  short  harangue,  commences  the 
march,  singing  his  war-song,  while  the  others  follow 
at  intervals  sounding  the  war-whoop.  The  women 
accompany  them  at  some  distance,  and  when  they 
must  separate,  they  exchange  endearing  names,  and 
express  the  most  ardent  wishes  for  a  triumphant  re- 
turn ;  while  each  party  receives  and  gives  some 
object  which  has  been  long  worn  by  the  other,  as 
a  memorial  of  this  tender  parting. 

As  long  as  the  warriors  continue  in  their  own 
country,  they  straggle  in  small  parties  for  the  con- 
venience of  hunting,  still  holding  communication  by 
shouts,  in  which  they  imitate  the  cries  of  certain 
fJirds  and  beasts.  When  arrived  at  the  frontier,  they 
all  unite  anrl  hold  another  great  festival,  followed  by 
solemn  dreaming,  the  tenour  of  w^hich  is  carefully 
examined.     If  found  inauspicious,  room  is  still  left 


116       THR    NAl  IVE    INDIANS    INHaBITINO 

to  return ;  and  those  whose  courage  shrinks  are  on 
such  occasions  supplied  with  an  apology  for  relin- 
quishing the  undertaking;  but  such  an  issue  is  rare. 
On  entering  the  hostile  territory  deep  silence  is  en- 
joined;  the  chase  is  discontinued  ;  they  crawl  on  all 
fours  ;  step  on  the  trunks  of  fallen  trees,  or  through 
swamps.  Sometimes  they  fasten  on  their  feet  the 
hoof  of  the  buffalo  or  tlie  paw  of  the  bear,  and  run 
in  an  irregular  track  like  those  animals.  Equally 
earnest  and  skilful  are  they  in  tracing  through  the 
woods  the  haunts  of  the  enemy.  The  slightest  in- 
dications, such  as  would  wholly  escape  the  notice  of 
a  European,  enable  them  to  thread  their  course 
through  the  vast  depths  of  the  western  forests. 
They  boast  of  being  able  to  discern  the  impression 
of  steps  even  on  the  yielding  grass,  and  of  knowing 
by  inspection  the  nation  or  tribe  by  whom  it  has 
been  made.  Various  and  ingenious  artifices  are  em- 
ployed to  entrap  their  foe.  From  the  recesses  of 
the  wood  they  send  forth  the  cries  of  the  animals 
which  are  most  eagerly  sought  by  the  rival  hunters. 
Their  grand  object,  however,  is  to  surprise  a  village, 
and,  if  possible,  the  principal  one  belonging  to  the 
hated  tribe.  Thither  all  their  steps  tend,  as  they 
steal  like  silent  ghosts  through  the  lonely  forest. 
On  approching  it,  they  cast  hasty  glances  from  the 
tops  of  trees  or  of  hillocks,  and  then  retreat  into 
the  thickest  covert;  but,  in  total  disregard  of  the 
most  disastrous  experience,  the  obvious  precaution 
of  placing  nightly  sentinels  has  never  been  adopted. 
Even  when  aware  of  danger,  they  content  them- 
selves with  exploring  the  vicinity  two  or  three  miles 
around,  when,  if  nothing  is  discovered,  they  go  to 
sleep  without  dread.  This  supineness  is  much  fos- 
tered by  a  delusive  confidence  in  the  manitous  en- 
closed in  the  holy  ark.  If,  during  the  day,  the  as- 
sailants have  reached  unperceived  a  covert  spot  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  devoted  village,  they  ex- 
pect the  satisfaction  of  finding  its  inhabitants  buried 


CANADA    AND    ITS    BORDERS.  117 

in  the  deepest  slumber  in  the  course  of  the  ensuing 
night.  They  keep  close  watch  till  immediately  be- 
fore daybreak,  when  silence  and  security  are  usually 
the  most  complete.  Then,  flat  on  their  faces,  and 
carefully  suppressing  the  slightest  sound,  they  creep 
slowly  towards  the  scene  of  action.  Having  reach- 
ed it  undiscovered,  the  chief,  by  a  shrill  cry,  gives 
the  signal,  which  is  instantly  followed  by  a  dis- 
charge of  arrows  or  musketry;  after  which  they 
rush  ill  with  the  war-club  and  the  tomahawk.  The 
air  echoes  with  the  sound  of  the  death- whoop  and 
of  arms.  The  savage  aspect  of  the  combatants; 
their  faces  painted  black  and  red,  and  soon  stream- 
ing with  blood  ;  their  frightful  yells,  make  thein  ap- 
pear like  demons  risen  from  the  world  beneath 
The  victims,  too  late  aroused,  spring  frotTi  their  fa- 
tal slumber,  and,  foreseeing  the  dreadful  fate  which 
awaits  them  if  taken  prisoners,  make  almost  super- 
human struggles  for  deliverance.  The  contest  ragps 
with  all  the  fury  of  revenge  and  despair,  but  ii  is 
usually  short.  The  unhappy  wretches,  surprised 
and  bewildered,  can  seldom  rally  or  resist;  they 
seek  safety  by  fleeing  into  the  depth  of  forests  or 
marshes,  whither  they  are  hotly  pursued.  The 
main  study  of  the  victorious  army  is  to  take  the  fu- 
gitives alive,  in  order  to  subject  them  to  the  horri- 
ble punishments  which  will  be  presently  described. 
Should  this  be  impracticable,  the  tomahawk  or  the 
hatchet  despatches  them  on  the  spot,  and  the  scaip 
is  then  carried  off  as  a  trophy.  Placing  a  foot  on 
the  neck  of  his  fallen  enemy,  and  twisting  a  hand  in 
the  hair,  the  warrior  draws  out  along,  sharp-pointed 
knife,  specially  formed  for  this  operation;  then  cut- 
ting a  circle  round  the  crown  of  the  head,  by  a  few 
skilful  scoops  he  detaches  the  hair  and  skin,  lodges 
the  whole  in  his  bag,  and  returns  in  triumph.* 

*  Charlevoix,  vol.  i.,  p.    317,   327,  330,   338,  339,  359-361. 
Adair,  p.  380-3S3.     Rogers's  Concise  Account  of  North  Amej 
iea  (London,  1765),  p.  222. 


118         THE    NATIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

At  the  close  of  the  expedition,  the  warriors  re- 
pair to  their  village,  and  even  in  approaching,  an- 
nounce its  results  by  various  signals  well  understood 
among  their  families.  According  to  the  most  ap- 
proved custom,  the  evil  tidings  are  first  communi- 
cated. A  herald  advances  before  the  troop,  and  for 
every  kinsman  who  has  fallen  sounds  the  death- 
whoop  ;  a  shrill,  lengthened  note,  ending  in  an  eleva- 
ted key.  An  interval  is  then  allowed,  during  which 
the  burst  of  grief  excited  by  these  tidings  may  be 
in  some  degree  exhausted.  Then  rises  the  loud, 
inspiring  sound  of  the  war-whoop,  which,  by  its 
successive  repetitions,  expresses  the  number  of  cap- 
tives brought  home  as  the  fruits  of  victory.  The 
barbarous  joy  thus  kindled  banishes  for  the  moment 
all  trace  of  lamentation.  The  women  and  children 
form  two  rows,  through  which  the  prisoner  is  led, 
having  his  face  painted,  and  crowned  with  flowers 
as  for  a  festival.  Then  begins  the  darkest  of  all  the 
scenes  by  which  the  savage  life  is  deformed.  A  se- 
ries of  studied  and  elaborate  torture  commences,  in 
which  ingenuity  is  tasked  to  the  utmost  to  inflict 
the  intensest  agony  that  can  be  endured  without  ac- 
tually extinguishing  life.  The  first  caress,  as  the 
French  call  it,  is  to  tear  the  nails  from  the  fingers  ; 
the  flesh  is  then  pierced  to  the  bone,  and  fire  in  va- 
rious forms  applied  to  the  extremities.  Blows  are 
also  given  to  the  last  degree  that  nature  can  sus- 
tain ;  and  sometimes  an  amusement  is  found  in  toss- 
ing, for  a  long  time,  the  victim  like  a  ball  from  one  ; 
to  another.  Other  contrivances,  peculiar  to  infuri-  ' 
ated  savages,  are  sometimes  resorted  to.  One  mis- 
sionary, for  example,  being  made  to  lie  on  his  back, 
had  his  stomach  covered  with  sagamity,  on  which 
hungry  dogs  were  set  to  feed,  which  tore  his  flesh 
with  their  teeth.  The  unhappy  wretch  is  occasion- 
ally paraded  from  village  to  village,  kept  for  weeks 
in  this  Ptate  of  suffering,  fed  on  the  coarsest  refuse, 
and  allowed  only  a  neglected  corner  of  the  cabin  to 


CANADA     AND    ITS    BORDERS.  119 

sleep  in  At  length  a  grand  council  is  held  to  de- 
cide his  fate,  or,  in  other  words,  to  determine 
whether  all  the  furies  of  vengeance  shall  be  let 
loose  upon  him,  and  his  life  be  taken  away  amid  the 
most  frightful  tortures,  or  whether  he  shall  be  salu- 
ted as  one  of  themselves,  and  treated  as  a  brother 
The  decision  is  influenced  by  various  considera- 
tions. If  he  be  a  youth  or  new  to  the  field,  a  le- 
nient course  may  probably  be  adopted ;  but  a  vet- 
eran warrior,  who  has  been  the  terror  of  the  nation, 
and  on  whose  skin  is  painted  a  record  of  triumphs, 
has  to  dread  a  sterner  sentence.  The  women  have 
much  influence,  according  as  they  either  demand 
revenge  for  the  loss  of  a  husband  or  brother,  or  so- 
licit that  the  captive  may  supply  the  vacancy.  The 
Iroquois,  though  the  fiercest  of  these  barbarians, 
being  the  deepest  politicians,  were  always  anxious 
to  augment  their  numbers;  hence,  though  they  pro- 
longed and  heightened  the  preliminary  torture,  they 
usually  ended  it  by  adoption.  This  was  carried  so 
far  that  they  are  described  as  having  at  length  be- 
come less  a  single  nation  than  an  aggregate  of  all 
the  surrounding  tribes.  The  stranger,  being  receiv- 
ed into  one  of  the  families  as  a  husband,  brother,  or 
son,  is  treated  with  the  utmost  tenderness ;  and  she, 
who  perhaps  immediately  before  exhausted  her  in- 
genuity in  tormenting  him,  now  nurses  the  wounds 
she  has  made,  and  loads  him  with  caresses.  He 
becomes  now  one  of  the  clan,  and  goes  with  them 
to  war,  even  against  his  former  countrymen  ;  and  so 
far  is  the  point  of  honour  carried,  that  to  return 
into  their  ranks  would  be  branded  as  an  act  of  base- 
ness.* 

There  are,  however,  many  occasions  in  which  the 
more  inhuman  resolution  is  taken,  and  a  fearful  dis- 
play is  then  made  of  the  darkest  passions  that  can 

♦  Charlevoix,  vol.  i.,  p.  368-373  Missions  en  la  Nouvejla 
France,  ans  1612,  1643,  p.  257,  inc.  ,  ans  1643,  1644,  p.  162-168 
Adair,  p.  389. 


120       THE    NATlVfi    INDIANS    INHABITING 

agitate  the  human  breast.  The  captive  is  informed 
of  his  fate  by  being  invested  with  moccasins  o/ 
black  bear's-skin,  and  having  placed  over  his  head 
a  flaming  torch,  the  sure  indications  of  his  doom. 
Before  the  fatal  scene  begins,  however,  he  is  al- 
lowed a  short  interval  to  sing  his  death-song,  which 
he  performs  in  a  triumphant  tone.  He  proclaims 
the  joy  with  which  he  goes  to  the  land  of  souls, 
where  he  will  meet  his  brave  ancestors,  who  taught 
him  the  great  lesson  to  fight  and  to  sufi"er.  He  re- 
counts his  warlike  exploits,  particularly  those  per- 
formed against  the  kindred  of  his  tormentors;  and 
if  there  was  any  one  of  them  whom  he  vanquished 
and  caused  to  expire  amid  tortures,  he  loudly  pro- 
claims it.  He  declares  his  inextinguishable  desire 
to  eat  their  flesh  and  to  drink  their  blood  to  the  last 
drop.  The  scene  is  considered,  even  when  com- 
pared to  the  field  of  battle,  as  the  great  theatre  of 
Indian  glory.  When  two  prisoners  were  about  to 
be  tortured  by  the  French  at  Quebec,  a  charitable 
hand  privately  supplied  a  weapon  with  which  one 
of  them  killed  himself;  but  the  other  derided  his 
effeminacy,  and  proudly  prepared  himself  for  his 
fiery  trial.  In  this  dreadful  work  the  women  take 
the  lead,  and  seem  transformed  into  raging  furies. 
She,  to  glut  whose  vengeance  the  doom  has  been 
specially  pronounced,  invokes  the  spirit  of  her  hus- 
band, her  brother,  or  her  son,  who  has  fallen  in  bat- 
tle or  died  amid  torture,  bidding  him  come  now  and 
be  appeased.  A  feast  is  prepared  for  him ;  a  war- 
rior is  to  be  thrown  into  the  great  caldron;  his 
blood  will  be  poured  out ;  his  flesh  torn  from  the 
bones  ;  let  the  injured  spirit  then  cease  to  complain. 
A  game  begins  between  the  torturers  and  the  tor- 
tured, one  to  inflict  the  most  intense  suffering,  the 
other  to  bear  it  with  proud  insensibility.  That  there 
may  be  some  appearance  of  open  contest,  he  is  not 
chained,  but  merely  tied  to  a  post,  and  a  certain 
range  allowed,  within  which,  while  the  brand,  the 


CANADA    AND    ITS    BOUDERS.  121 

hatchet,  and  every  engine  of  torture  are  applied,  he 
can  do  somewhat  to  repel  his  assailants,  and  even 
attack  in  his  turn.  He  struggles  fiercely  in  the  un- 
equal strife,  and  while  his  frame  is  consuming  in 
agony,  still  defies  his  tormentors,  and  outbraves 
death  itself.  Some  even  deride  the  feeble  eflTorts 
of  their  executioners,  boasting  how  much  more  ef- 
fectively they  themselves  had  applied  torture  to  in- 
dividuals of  their  tribe.  Yet  there  are  instances 
when  the  murderers  at  last  triumph  ;  tiie  sufferer 
exclaims,  "  Fire  is  strong,  and  too  powerful;"  he 
even  utters  loud  shrieks,  which  are  responded  to 
by  exulting  shouts  of  savage  laughter.  Some  few 
have  been  known,  by  almost  incredible  effbrts,  to 
break  loose,  and  by  rapid  flight  to  effect  their  es- 
cape. The  general  result,  however,  is  death,  after 
protracted  suffering;  when  the  scalp,  if  still  entire, 
is  taken  off  and  deposited  among  the  military  tro- 
phies.* 

It  has  been  made  a  question  whether  the  Indians 
can  be  justly  charged  with  cainiibalism.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  all  the  terms  by  which  they  designate  their 
inhuman  mode  of  putting  a  prisoner  to  death  bear 
reference  to  this  horrid  practice.  The  expressions 
are  to  throw  him  into  the  caldron,  to  devour  him, 
to  eat  soup  made  of  his  flesh.  It  has  hence  been 
plausibly  inferred  that  this  enormity  really  prevailed 
in  early  times,  but  was  changed,  we  can  scarcely 
Bay  mitigated,  into  the  present  system  of  torture.  •. 
Yet,  as  every  action  is  described  by  them  in  terms 
highly  figurative,  those  now  quoted  may  have  been 
used  as  expressing  most  fully  the  complete  gratifi- 
cation of  their  revenge.  Of  this  charge  they  can- 
not now  be  either  condemned  or  wliolly  acquitted. 
in  the  excited  fury  of  their  passions,  portions  of 
the  flesh  are  often  seized,  roasted,  and  eaten,  and 
draughts  taken  of  the  blood.     To  eat  an  enemy's 

•  Charlevoix,  vol.  i..  p.  375.     Adair,  p.  390,  391.     Golden,  vol. 
t,  p.  144, 146 


122     THE  Native  Indians  inhabiting 

heart  is  considered  a  peculiar  enjoyment.  Long 
mentions  a  gentleman  who  came  upon  a  party  who 
were  busy  broiling  a  human  heart,  when  he  with 
difficulty  prevailed  on  them  to  desist.  There  is  lit- 
tle hesitation  among  them,  in  periods  of  scarcity, 
to  relieve  hunger  with  the  flesh  of  their  captives ; 
and  during  one  war,  this  fate  is  said  to  have  befallen 
many  French  soldiers  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
P^ive  Nations.  Colonel  Schuyler  told  Golden,  that, 
having  entered  the  cabin  of  a  chief  who  had  some 
rich  soup  before  him,  he  was  invited  to  partake. 
Being  hungry  and  tired,  he  readily  agreed,  till  the 
ladle,  being  put  into  the  great  caldron,  brought  up  a 
human  hand,  the  sight  of  which  put  an  inmiediate 
end  to  his  appetite  and  meal.* 

Although  war  may  be  considered  as  the  ordinary 
state  of  those  tribes,  yet,  after  having  for  a  consid- 
erable time  experienced  its  destructive  effects,  there 
usually  arises  a  desire  for  an  interval  of  tranquillity 
To  procure  this,  a  regular  form  is  observed.  The 
nation  which  resolves  to  make  the  overture  de- 
spatches several  individuals,  usually  of  some  note, 
as  ambassadors,  with  at  least  one  orator.  They 
bear  before  them  the  calumet  of  peace,  which  ren- 
ders their  character  sacred,  and  secures  them  from 
violence.  They  carry  also  a  certain  number  o' 
belts  of  wampum,  with  which  are  respectively  con- 
nected the  several  motives  and  terms  of  the  pro- 
posed treaty.  The  orator  having  obtained  an  au- 
dience of  the  chiefs  on  the  other  side,  expounds 
the  belts,  dancing  and  smgmg  in  unison,  and  by  ac- 
tions expressing  the  peaceful  purpose  of  his  mis- 
sion. If  the  opposite  parly  be  favourably  inclined 
they  accept  the  offered  symbols,  and  next  dsy  pre- 
sent others  of  a  similar  import.  He  them  smoke* 
in  the  calumet,  and  the  contract  is  sealed  by  bury 
ing  a  hatchet ;  if  there  be  any  allies,  one  is  depos 

*  Charlevoix,  vol.  i.,  p.  318.    Adait,  p.  199.     Long,  p.  77,  78 
Colden,  vol.  i.,  p.  156. 


CANADA  AND  ITS  BORDERS.      123 

ited  for  each.  This  agreement  is  often  accompa- 
nied with  professions,  at  the  moment  perhaps  sin- 
cere, of  maintaining  the  sun  always  in  the  heavens, 
and  never  again  digging  up  the  hatchet;  but  the 
turbulence  of  individuals,  and  the  satiety  of  long 
peace,  to  which  the  whole  nation  is  subject,  usually 
rekindle  hostilities  at  no  distant  period.* 

Some  notice  may  finally  be  expected  of  Indian 
amusements  ;  the  most  favourite  of  which  are  smo- 
king, music,  and  dancing.  These,  however,  are 
viewed  in  a  much  higher  light  than  mere  pastime, 
being  ranked  among  the  most  serious  occupations, 
and  esteemed  quite  indispensable  in  the  conduct  of 
every  important  affair.  Without  them  a  council 
cannot  be  held,  a  negotiation  carried  on,  peace  or 
war  proclaimed,  nor  any  public  or  private  contract 
entered  into;  for  not  one  of  these  transactions  is 
accounted  valid  till  it  has  been  smoked  over,  and 
sung  and  danced  to.  The  calumet  is  the  grand  in- 
strument of  their  policy.  No  important  affair  can 
be  taken  into  consideration  without  the  pipe  in  their 
mouths ;  and  hence,  to  call  an  assembly  of  the 
chiefs  is  said  to  be  lighting  the  council- fire.  This 
tube  accompanies  and  is  the  guardian  of  every  em- 
bassy, and  to  smoke  together  is  the  chief  cement  of 
national  union. 

Music  and  dancing  accompanying  each  other  are 
equally  indispensable  to  every  solemn  celebration. 
Yet  the  instruments  and  performance  are  alike 
simple  and  rude ;  for  their  song,  though  often  con- 
tinued for  a  long  period,  consists  merely  in  the 
perpetual  iteration  of  a  few  wild  melancholy  notes. 
The  words  are  usually  of  the  minstrers  own  com- 
position, and  record  his  exploits  in  war  or  hunting, 
and  sometimes  the  praises  of  the  animals  which  he 
has  killed  in  the  chase.  The  song  is  accompanied 
bv  performance  on  the  drum,  and  on  the  chi'^hikoue, 

♦  Cnarlevoix,  vol.  i.,  p.  321. 


124     THE  Native   Indians  inhabiting 

or  pipe.  The  former  is  merely  a  hollowed  piece 
of  wood,  covered  with  skin;  the  latter  is  formed 
of  a  thick  cane,  upward  of  two  feet  in  length,  with 
eight  or  nine  holes,  and  a  monthpiece  not  unlike 
that  of  a  common  whistle.  Those  who  know  how 
to  stop  the  holes  and  bring  out  a  sound  consider 
themselves  performers;  yet  they  cannot  play  upon 
it  even  those  simple  airs  which  they  execute  with 
the  voice,  though  they  will  often  continue  for  hours 
drawing  out  wild  irregular  notes. 

The  dances  of  the  Indians,  even  those  at  com- 
mon festivals,  are  on  an  extensive  scale,  requiring 
to  a  complete  performance  forty  or  fifty  persons, 
who  execute  their  evolutions  by  following  each 
other  round  a  great  fire  kindled  in  the  centre. 
Their  movements,  monotonous  but  violent,  con- 
sist in  stamping  furiously  on  the  ground,  and  often 
brandishing  their  arms  in  a  manner  compared  by  an 
able  writer  to  a  baker  converting  flour  into  dough. 
They  keep  good  time  ;  but  the  music  is  so  exceed 
ingly  simple  that  this  implies  little  merit.  They 
conclude  with  a  loud  shout  or  howl,  which  echoes 
frightfully  through  the  woods.  The  dances  in  cele- 
bration of  particular  events  are  of  a  more  varied 
character,  and  often  form  a  very  expressive  panto- 
mime. The  war-dance  is  the  most  favourite  and 
frequent.  In  this  extraordinary  performance,  a 
complete  image  is  given  of  the  terrible  reality;  the 
war-whoop  is  sounded  with  the  most  frightful  yells; 
the  tomahawk  is  wildly  brandished  ;  and  the  enemy 
are  surprised,  seized,  and  scalped,  or  carried  oflf 
for  torture.  The  calumet-dance,  which  celebrates 
peace  between  nations,  and  the  marriage-dance, 
which  represents  domestic  life,  arc  much  more 
pleasing.  Some  mention  is  made  of  i  '.iiystie  dance, 
carried  on  by  the  jugglers  or  doctors,  with  strange 
superstitious  ceremonies,  and  in  which  a  supernat- 
ural personage,  termed  by  some  the  devil,  rises  and 
performs ;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  wit- 


Canada  and  its  borders.  liio 

oessed  by  any  l']uro[>ean,  and  is  said  to  be  now  in 
a  great  measure  disiiised.* 

There  are,  tnoreover,  games  to  which  the  Indians 
are  fondly  attached,  which,  though  they  be  only 
ranked  under  the  head  of  amusement,  are  yet  con- 
Btructed  in  the  same  serious  manner  as  their  other 
transactions.  Their  great  parties  are  said  to  be 
collected  by  supernatural  authority,  communicated 
by  the  jugglers  ;  and  they  are  preceded,  like  their 
wars  and  hunts,  by  a  course  of  fasting,  dreaming, 
and  other  means  of  propitiatmg  fortune.  The  favour- 
ite game  is  that  of  the  bone,  in  which  small  pieces  of 
that  substance,  resembling  dice,  and  painted  of  dif- 
ferent colours,  are  thrown  in  the  air,  and  according 
to  the  manner  in  which  they  fall,  the  game  is  deci- 
ded. Only  two  persons  can  play  ;  but  a  numerous 
party,  and  sometimes  whole  villages,  embrace  one 
side  or  the  other,  and  look  on  with  intense  interest. 
At  each  throw,  especially  if  it  be  decisive,  tremen- 
dous shouts  are  raised ;  the  players  and  spectators 
equally  resemble  persons  possessed ;  the  air  rings 
■with  invocations  to  the  bones  and  to  the  manitous. 
Their  eagerness  sometimes  leads  to  quarrelling  and 
even  fighting,  which  on  no  other  occasion  ever  dis- 
turb  the  interior  of  these  societies.  To  such  a 
pitch  are  they  occasionally  worked  up,  that  they 
stake  successively  all  they  possess,  and  even  their 
personal  liberty ;  but  this  description  must  apply 
only  to  the  more  southern  nations,  as  slavery  was 
unknown  among  the  Canadian  Indians. 

A  temporary  interval  of  wild  license,  of  emanci- 
pation from  all  the  restraints  of  dignity  and  deco- 
rum, seems  to  afford  an  enjoyment  highly  prized 
in  all  rude  societies.  Corresponding  with  the  sat- 
urnalia and  bacchanals  of  antiquity,  the  Indiana 
have  their  festival  of  dreams,  which,  during  fifteen 

♦  Missions  en  !a  Nouvelle  France,  ans  1645,  1646,  p.  20,  21 
Well',  !>.  412-417.     Creuxius,  p.  67.     Chateaubriand,  vol,  I,  p. 
805.    Charlevoix,  vol.  li.,  p.  70.     Carver,  p.  270,  271. 


126        THE    NaIIVE    INDIANS    INHABITING 

flays,  enlivens  the  inaction  of  the  coldest  season 
Laying  aside  all  their  usual  order  and  gravity,  they 
^run  about,  frightfully  disguised,  and  commiting  ev- 
ery imaginable  extravagance.  He  who  meets  an- 
otFier  demands  an  explanation  of  his  visions,  and  it 
not  satisfied,  imposes  some  fantastic  penalty.  He 
throws  upon  hitn  cold  water,  hot  ashes,  or  filth, 
sometimes,  rushing  into  his  cabin,  he  breaks  and 
destroys  the  furniture.  Although  everything  ap- 
pears wild  and  unpremeditated,  it  is  alleged  that 
opportunities  are  often  taken  to  give  vent  to  old  and 
secret  resentments.  The  period  having  elapsed,  a 
feast  is  given,  order  is  restored,  and  the  damages 
done  are  carefully  repaired.* 

On  the  first  settlement  of  Europeans  in  Canada, 
that  territory  was  chiefly  divided  between  three 
great  nations,  the  Algonquins,  the  Hurons,  and  the 
Iroquois  or  Five  Nations.  The  first  held  an  exten- 
sive domain  along  the  northern  bank  of  the  St. 
Lawrence,  about  a  hundred  leagues  above  Trois 
Rivieres.  Shortly  before,  they  had  been  the  most 
powerful  of  all  these  tribes,  and  considered  even  in 
some  degree  as  masters  over  this  part  of  America. 
They  are  described  also  as  having  the  mildest  as 
pect  and  polished  manners  of  any.  They  subsisted 
entirely  by  hunting,  and  looked  with  proud  disdain 
on  their  neighbours,  who  consented  to  bestow  on 
the  soil  even  llie  smallest  cultivation.!  The  Hu- 
rons were  a  numerous  people,  whose  very  exten- 
sive territory  reached  from  the  Algonquin  frontier 
to  the  borders  of  the  great  lake  bearing  their  name. 
They  were  also  more  industrious,  and  derived  an 
abundant  subsistence  from  the  fine  territory  of  Up- 
per Canada.  But  they  were,  at  the  same  time,  more 
effeminate  and  voluptuous,  and  had  less  of  the 
proud  independence  of  savage  life,  having  chiefs 

*  Charlevoix,  vol.  ii.,  p.  13-15,  159  164,  &c.     Chateaubriand, 
wol.  i.,  p.  238-242.     La  Fotherie,  vol.  ii.,  p.  126,  127. 
i  La  Puthene,  toI.  i.  p.  232- -289. 


CANADA    AND    ITS    BOKUERS  127 

hereditary  in  the  female  line,  to  whom  they  paid 
considerable  deference. 

The  Iroquois,  destined  to  act  the  most  conspicu- 
ous part  among  all  the  native  tribes,  occupied  a 
long  range  of  territory  on  the  southern  border  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  from  Lake  Champlain  to  the 
western  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario.  They  were 
thus  beyond  the  limits  of  what  is  now  considered 
Canada ;  yet,  as  all  their  transactions  were  com- 
pletely connected  with  the  interests  of  that  country, 
we  cannot  at  present  avoid  considering  them  as  be- 
longing to  it 

This  people  were  divided  into  five  cantons,  each 
of  which  was  considered  as  an  independent  nation. 
They  were  united,  however,  by  the  closest  alliance  , 
were  never  found  waging  war  with  each  other;  nor 
did  they  often  fail  to  combine  their  forces  when  at- 
tacked by  neighbouring  tribes.*  The  following  are 
the  names  given  to  them  by  English  and  French 
authors : 

English.  French. 

Mohawks.  Agniers. 

Oneidas.  Onneyouths. 

Onondagoes.  Onontagues. 

Cayugas.  Anniegue. 

Senecas.  Tsonnonthouans. 

•   La  Potherie,  vol.  i.,  p.  232-289.     Rogeis,  p.  237.    Colden, 
?.  3.  4. 


28  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 


CHAPTER  III. 

History  of  Canada  under  the  French 

Earliest  Discoveries  of  the  English  and  French-  De  m  Rocb 
— Chauvin  and  Pontgrave.— De  Monts.— Champlain,  em 
ployed  by  him,  ascends  the  St.  Lawrence. — Founds  Quebec. 
—  Dealings  with  a  Party  of  Natives. — Joins  a  warlike  Expe- 
dition.—Victory. — Torture. — Transactions  in  France. — Fresh 
military  Encounter.  —  Foundation  of  Montreal.  —  Various 
Transactions. —  Voyage  up  the  Ottawa.— Great  Expedition 
against  the  Iroquois. — Unsuccesslul. —  Difficulties  in  France. 
— Appointirentof  De  Caen.— Peace  among  the  Indian  Tribes. 
— Duke  de  Ventadour  Viceroy. —  Rupture  of  the  Treaty. — 
Quebec  taken  by  the  English.— Restored.— Large  Supplies 
sent  out. —  Death  of  Chaiiiplain.— Great  Power  of  the  Five 
Nations — Treaty  with  them.— War  renewed. — Destruction 
of  the  French  Indian  Allies.— A  Remnant  flee  to  Quebec. — 
Iroquois  MastiMS  of  Canada.— Louis  XIV.  determines  to  re- 
enforce  the  Colony. —  Expedition  under  l~)e  Tracy.— Govern- 
ment of  De  Courcelles.— Frontenac— De  la  Barre.— His  fruit- 
less Expedition — DenonviUe. — His  violent  Proceedings. — 
Critical  state  of  the  Colony. — Second  Government  of  Fron- 
tenac. — ('apture  of  Corlaer  or  Schenectady.— The  English 
under  Phipps  attack  Quebec— Repulsed.— Negotiations  with 
the  Indians. — Invasion  of  their  Territory. — Death  of  Fron- 
tenac— De  Calli^res. — Peace,  and  speedy  Renewal  of  War. 
— Attempts  by  the  English  to  conquer  Canada. — Treaty  ot 
Utrecht. — Charlevoix's  Account  of  the  Stale  of  the  Colony. 
—Its  prosperity.— Administration  of  Du  Quesne. 

The  English  took  decidedly  the  most  prominent 
part  in  the  discovery  of  North  America.  In  1497, 
John  Cabot,  under  a  commission  from  Henry  VII., 
landed  on  its  shores,  four  years  only  after  Columbus 
had  reached  the  West  Indies,  and  nearly  twelve 
months  before  that  celebrated  navigator  had  touched 
at  any  part  of  the  continent.  In  the  following  year, 
Sebastian,  son  tc  the  first  discoverer,  performed  a 
most  extensive  exploratory  voyaae  alone  the  greater 


tTNDRR    THE    FRENCH.  12^ 

part  of  the  eastern  coast,  to  lat.  56°  or  58°  N.,  and 
soulli  as  far  as  Florida.  The  same  eminent  seaman 
took  part  in  anotlier  expedition  undertaken  in  1517, 
for  the  discovery  of  a  northwest  passage.  The 
squadron  appears  to  iiave  penetrated  into  Hudson's 
l5ay,  but  through  the  pusillanimity  of  Sir  Thomas 
Pert,  the  commander,  returned  without  completing 
the  object  in  view.  These  interesting  voyages, 
however,  have  been  illustrated  with  such  diligent 
and  acute  research  by  Mr.  Tytler,  that  to  our  read- 
ers another  detailed  narrative  of  them  would  be  very 
superfluous.* 

Various  circumstances  combined  to  withdraw  the 
successors  of  Henry  from  this  brilliant  career. 
They  were  succeeded  in  it  by  France ;  and  it  is  sin- 
gular that  the  settlement  of  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  what  is  now  British  America  was  effected  by  that 
power.  When,  too,  England  had  wrested  these  pos- 
sessions from  her  rival,  she  retained  them  after 
most  of  her  own  colonies  had  established  their  in- 
dependence ;  for  which  reason  we  find  it  necessary 
lo  enter  at  considerable  length  into  the  proceedings 
of  those  Gallic  adventurers  who  laid  the  foundations 
of  civilization  in  the  Canadian  provinces. 

In  1524,  Francis  1.  commissioned  Giovanni  Ve- 
razzano,  a  skilful  Florentine  navigator,  who  appears 
to  have  sailed  along  the  whole  coast  from  Carolina 
to  the  northern  extremity  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  was 
then  appropriated  in  the  name  of  his  most  Christian 
majesty,  under  the  magnificent  title  of  New  France. 
His  second  expedition  was  disastrous;  but  in  1534, 
Jacques  Cartier,  a  bold  and  able  mariner  of  St.  Malo, 
was  sent  out  with  a  similar  view.  This  discoverer 
made  two  voyages,  in  the  second  of  which  he  pen- 
etrated up  the  St.  Lawrence  as  high  as  the  position 
now  occupied  by  Montreal,  and  brought  home  with 

*  See  Progress  of  Discovery  on  the  more  Northern  Coasts  of 
America,  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the  Present  Time,  p.  15- 
84,  31-38.     Harpers'  Family  Library. 


ySO  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

him  Donnaconna,  a  native  king.  He  was  employed 
a  third  time  in  1540,  though  in  a  subordinate  rank, 
under  the  Sieur  de  Roberval,  an  opulent  nobleman 
of  Picardy,  who,  having  agreed  to  defray  the  ex- 
pense of  the  expedition,  was  created  lieutenant- 
general  and  viceroy.  The  enterpris-e  was  begun 
with  spirit;  and  a  fort  named  Charlesbourg  was 
erected  near  the  site  now  occupied  by  Quebec.  The 
natives,  however,  showed  a  hostile  spirit;  the  two 
leaders  quarrelled ;  and  Roberval  abandoned  the 
uiidertakuig.  He  renewed  it  in  1540,  but  with  an 
issue  singularly  unfortunate,  neither  he  nor  his 
brother,  who  accompanied  him,  being  ever  again 
heard  of.  For  the  details  of  these  voyages  also  we 
refer  to  the  work  above  mentioned,  where  they  will 
be  found  narrated  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner.* 

These  failures,  and  still  more,  perhaps,  the  dis- 
tracted state  of  France  during  many  years,  occa- 
sioned by  religious  wars,  withdrew  the  attention  of 
the  government  from  schemes  of  transatlantic  colo- 
nization. The  merchants,  however,  of  the  great 
commercial  towns,  particularly  Dieppe,  Rouen,  St. 
Malo,  and  Rochelle,  had  opened  communications, 
and  even  established  posts  for  the  prosecution  of 
the  fur-trade.  That  of  Canada  was  carried  on 
chiefly  at  Tadoussac,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Haguenay. 

Tranquillity  being  restored  by  the  union  of  parties 
under  the  sway  of  Henry  IV.,  the  public  attention 
was  again  directed  towards  New  France.  The 
Marquis  de  la  Roche,  a  nobleman  of  Brittany,  under- 
took to  equip  an  expedition  on  a  large  scale,  and  form 
a  settlement  on  that  remote  shore.  The  encourage- 
ments to  such  enterprises  were  always  liberal ;  and 
Henry  in  this  respect  seems  to  have  surpassed  all 
other  monarchs.  The  marquis  was  authorized  not 
only  to  levy  troops,  make  war,  build  forts  and  citieSj 

•  Pages  49-58. 


UNLEK    TH£    fllENCH.  l3l 

and  enact  laws,  but  even  to  create  lords,  counts, 
barons,  and  similar  dignities.  He  accordingly  equip- 
ped several  vessels,  with  a  considerable  number  of 
sttUers,  whom,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  draw 
pirtly  from  the  prisons  of  Paris.  He  sailed  under 
the  guidance  of  Chedotel,  a  Norman  pilot ;  but  of 
the  voyage  it  is  only  narrated  that  he  landed  and  left 
forty  men  on  Sable  Island,  a  small  barren  spot  near 
the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia.  He  then  returned  ;  when, 
being  thwarted  hi  his  designs  at  court,  he  fell  sick, 
and  died  of  chagrin.  The  colonists  were  entirely 
forgotten,  and  soon  experienced  such  hardships  as 
caused  even  the  criminals  among  them  to  regret 
their  dungeons.  Having,  with  a  few  planks  ob- 
tained from  a  wrecked  vessel,  erected  a  hut,  they 
were  obliged  to  subsist  on  the  fish  which  they  caught, 
and  to  replace  their  worn-out  garments  with  the 
skins  of  sea-wolves.  In  this  condition  they  were 
left  seven  years,  when  the  king,  or,  according  to 
Champlain,  the  parliament  of  Rouen,  sent  out  Che- 
dotel to  see  what  was  become  of  them.  He  found 
only  twelve  survivers,  who  exhibited  the  most 
wretched  and  deplorable  aspect.  On  their  return 
to  France  they  waited  upon  Henry,  who  received 
them  kindly,  and  made  them  a  handsome  donation.* 
The  king  was  still  disposed  to  encourage  coloni- 
zation. In  1599,  two  eminent  naval  characters, 
Chauvin  of  Rouen  and  Pontgrave  of  St.  Malo,  under- 
took to  settle  five  hundred  persons,  and  prevailed 
on  his  majesty  to  aid  them,  by  granting  a  monopoly 
of  the  fur-trade  on  the  St  Lawrence.  Chauvin,  it 
is  alleged,  was  disposed  to  execute  as  little  as  pos- 
sible of  the  agreement,  his  chief  object  being  to 
avail  himself  of  the  exclusive  traffic.  However, 
being  under  the  necessity  of  making  some  show,  he 
fitted  out  two  vessels,  and  arrived  at  Tadoussac. 

♦  Histoire  Generale  des  Voyages  (19  vols.  4to,  Paris,  1746- 
1770),  tome  xiv.,  p.  589-591.  Cliamplaiii,  Voyages  du  Sieur  d« 
(,2  voU.  8vo,  Paris,  1830),  toirif  i..  p.  41-43. 


132  MlsTOflY   Oii"   CAxVaDA 

This  situation  being  bleak  and  barren  in  the  extreme, 
he  was  strongly  advised  to  proceed  farther  up  the 
river,  to  one  which  was  reported  to  be  much  more  ad- 
vantageous. Disregarding  this  suggestion,  he  buih 
a  house  twenty-four  feet  long,  eighteen  broad,  and 
eight  high,  surrounded  it  with  a  ditch,  and  lodged 
there  sixteen  settlers  for  the  winter.  They  had, 
however,  a  very  slender  stock  of  provisions,  and  on 
the  setting  in  of  the  cold  were  reduced  to  the  last 
extremity,  and  finally  obliged  to  throw  themselves 
on  the  mercy  of  the  natives.  From  that  simple 
people  they  experienced  a  great  degree  of  kindness, 
but,  nevertheless,  suffered  such  hardships,  that  many 
of  them  perished  before  the  arrival  of  vessels  from 
France.  Chauvin  performed  another  voyage,  which 
was  as  fruitless  as  the  first ;  and  in  the  course  of  a 
third  he  was  taken  ill  and  died.* 

Fresh  adventurers  were  never  wanting  in  this 
hazardous  enterprise.  The  next  was  the  Comman- 
deur  de  Chaste,  governor  of  Dieppe,  who,  though 
already  gray  with  years,  engaged  in  it,  and  prevail- 
ed upon  some  considerable  merchants  to  second 
him.  He  made  a  most  important  acquisition  in 
Samuel  Champlain,  the  destined  founder  of  the 
.French  settlements  in  Canada,  who  had  just  arri- 
\  ved  from  the  East  Indies.  He  and  Pontgrave  were 
sent  out  to  Tadoussac,  with  instructions  to  ascend 
the  St.  Lawrence,  and  examine  the  country  on  its 
upper  borders.  They  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
Sault  St.  Louis,  a  little  above  Montreal ;  but,  finding 
it  impossible  to  pass  that  cataract,  they  with  some 
difficulty  reached  the  height  above  it.  where  they 
made  the  best  observations  they  could  on  the  river 
and  country.  Champlain,  on  his  arrival  in  France, 
was  dismayed  to  find  De  Chaste  dead,  and  the 
whole  undertaking  deranged.  He  proceeded,  how- 
ever, to  Paris,  and  showed  to  the  king  a  chart  and 

•  Champlain,  tome  i.,  p.  44-48. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  133 

descriplion  of   the  region  he   had    surveyed,  with 
which  his  majesty  appeared  highly  pleased.* 

Scarcely  an  interval  elapsed  when  the  same  en- 
terprise was  taken  up  by  De  Monts,  a  gentleman  ot 
opulence  and  distinction,  and  a  special  favourite  of 
Henry.  He  obtained  the  highest  privileges  that 
had  been  granted  to  any  of  his  predecessors,  and 
having  prepared  an  expedition  on  a  more  exten- 
sive scale  than  any  former  one,  he  put  to  sea ;  but 
as  he  had  accompanied  Chauvin  to  Tadoussac,  and 
viewed  that  bleak  shore,  he  felt  very  averse  to 
enter  the  St.  Lawrence.  It  appeared  to  him  that 
the  seacoast,  being  in  a  more  southern  latitude, 
was  likely  to  enjoy  a  milder  climate  ;  an  idea  plau- 
sible, tiiough  erroneous.  He  directed  his  chief  ef- 
forts, therefore,  to  the  country  now  named  Nova 
Scotia;  and  though  his  operations  there  were  dis- 
astrous to  his  companions,  and  ultimately  to  him- 
self, they  were  the  means  of  founding  the  impor- 
tant colony  of  Acadia.  Our  narrative  of  these 
adventurers,  however,  is  reserved  till  we  come  to 
treat  of  that  province. f 

Champlain,  whose  services  he  had  secured,  then 
remonstrated  with  him  on  the  error  of  preferring 
an  iron-bound  coast  to  the  beautiful  and  fertile 
banks  of  the  upper  St.  Lawrence.  De  Monts  lis- 
tened to  the  suggestion,  and,  undeterred  by  pre- 
vious losses,  applied  to  the  king  for  a  commission. 
He  obtained  it  without  difficulty,  associated,  as  be- 
fore, with  a  grant  of  a  monopoly  of  the  fur-trade  on 
the  river.  He  fitted  out  two  vessels,  but,  not  find 
ing  it  convenient  to  command  in  person,  placed 
them  under  Champlain,  who,  accompanied  by  Pont- 
grave,  was  authorized  to  act  as  his  lieutenant. J 

The  expedition  sailed  from  Honfleur  on  the  13th 
\pril,  1608,  and  on  the  3d  June  reached  Tadoussac. 

*  Champlain,  tome  i.,  p.  49-53.  1  Ibid.,  p.  54-56. 

•■   'W'fi..  D.  loO.  151. 


134  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

The  Saguenay,  hitherto  the  chief  seat  of  the  traff„c 
in  furs,  was  described  as  flowing  from  a  consider- 
ably distant  source  in  the  north.  Forty  or  fifty 
leogues  up,  its  current  was  broken  by  a  succession 
of  falls,  beyond  which  was  a  lake  (St.  John)  which 
it  required  three  days  to  cross.  On  the  other  side 
were  wandering  tribes,  from  whom  the  skins  were 
chiefly  procured,  and  who  reported  that  in  their 
roammgs  they  came  in  view  of  the  Northern  Sea. 
Champlain  had  sufficient  information  to  know  that 
this  could  only  be  a  large  gulf;  though  he  had  no 
knowledge  of  Hudson's  Bay,  which  had  not  yet 
been  entered  by  the  great  navigator  whose  name  it 
bears.  The  small  port  of  Tadoussac  was  tolerably 
safe;  but  the  shore  consisted  only  of  dreary  rocks 
and  sands,  scantily  clothed  with  larch  and  pine. 
He  could  find  nothing  to  catch  except  a  few  small 
birds,  which  visited  the  spot  only  in  summer.  The 
natives  who  traded  with  the  French  sailed  in  canoes 
of  birch-bark,  so  light  that  a  man  could  easily  carry 
them  from  one  river  or  lake  to  another. 

The  navigator  continued  to  ascend  the  stream, 
though  the  banks  were  still  naked  and  unpromising, 
till  he  reached  the  Isle  of  Orleans,  which  formed 
the  commencement  of  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 
river,  being  adorned  with  fine  woods  and  meadows.* 

After  passing  this  island,  he  immediately  sought 
a  commodious  place  of  settlement,  and  soon  fixed 
on  a  hill  richly  clothed  with  vines  and  walnut-trees, 
called  by  the  natives  Quebeio  or  Quebec.  Having 
begun  to  clear  and  build,  he  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  a  number  of  the  natives  busily  employed  in 
the  fishery  of  eels.  They  showed  a  considerable 
disposition  to  adopt  European  culture  and  other 
improvements,  the  introduction  of  which  he  was 
led  to  hope  might  issue  in  their  conversion. -f 

The  Frenchman  spent  the  winter  here,  and  sow 

*  Champlain,  tome  i.,  liv.  iii.,  ch..  3„4, 
t  Ibid,,  liv.  iv.,  ch.  5. 


UNDKK    THE    FRENCH.  l35 

ed  some  grain,  for  which  he  found  the  soil  well 
adapted.  The  iniKibitaats,  who,  uiihke  those  high- 
er up  the  river,  did  not  practise  agriculture  in  any 
degree,  were  often  reduced  to  the  most  dreadful 
extremes  of  famine.  Of  lliis  the  settlers  witness- 
ed a  painful  example  in  February,  1609,  when  a 
party  of  the  savages,  seeing  them  from  the  oppo- 
site bank,  and  hoping  to  obtain  relief,  resolved  to 
cross,  without  regard  to  the  floating  ire.  The 
French  considered  the  attempt  quite  desperate ; 
and  accordingly,  in  mid-channel,  the  canoes  were 
dashed  to  pieces,  and  the  poor  creatures  leaped  on 
a  mass  of  ice,  whence  they  raised  the  most  doleful 
cries.  By  peculiarly  good  fortune,  a  larger  piece 
struck  that  on  which  they  stood  and  caused  it  to 
drift  ashore.  They  landed  with  joy,  but  in  a  stale 
of  such  ravening  hunger,  that,  had  the  discoverers 
made  any  attempt  to  satisfy  it,  their  whole  stock 
would  have  been  swallowed  up.  A  limited  allow- 
ance was,  however,  granted,  which  they  sought  to 
augment  by  very  strange  expedients.  A  dead  pig 
and  dog  had  been  laid  out  as  a  bait  for  foxes ;  but 
having  been  exposed  two  months,  and  the  weather 
becoming  milder,  such  a  scent  issued  from  them 
that  the  French  could  scarcely  approach  the  spot. 
The  new-comers,  however,  on  discovering  this 
store,  exultingly  carried  it  to  their  hut,  and  began  to 
feast  upon  it.  Their  hosts  ran  to  warn  them  of  the 
danger  of  such  food,  but  found  them  so  busily  enga- 
ged, each  with  a  piece  in  his  hand,  that  remon- 
strance was  vain,  and  being  themselves  assailed 
with  disgusting  odours  from  the  half-cooked  vic- 
tuals, they  were  glad  to  retreat.  Another  dead 
dog  had  been  placed  on  the  top  of  a  tree  to  attract 
birds  of  prey.  The  natives  were  so  extremely 
weak  that  they  could  not  climb ;  but  having,  by 
great  efforts,  cut  down  the  tree,  they  possessed 
themselves  of  this  highly-flavouied  morsel.* 

*  Chftiiplain,  tome  i.,  liv.  ill.,  ch.  6> 


136  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

As  soon  as  the  season  admitted,  Champlam  re- 
Siimed  his  voyage  up  the  river,  the  banks  of  which 
were    covered    with   noble    forests.      Twenty-five 
leagues  above  Quebec,  at  a  small  island  named  St. 
Eloi,  he  met  a  band  belonging  chiefly  to  the  cele- 
brated nation  of  the  Algoiiquins,  commanded  by 
two  chiefs,  Yroquet  and  Ochasteguin.     It  now  ap- 
pears that  a  treaty  had  already  been  opened  at  the 
winter  station  by    a   son   of  the  former,  through 
whom  they  had  promised  to  assist  the  stranger  in 
his  attempt  to  traverse  the  country  of  the  Iroquois, 
on  the  condition  that  he  should  aid  them  in  a  war 
against  that  fierce  people.     The  zeal  of  our  adven- 
turer blinded  him  not  only  to  the  danger,  but  to  the 
guilt  of  this  most  unprovoked  aggression  on  a  nation 
who  had  never  offended  him.     In  reply  to  a  solemn 
appeal  from  the  savage  chiefs,  he  assured   them  of 
his  determination  strictly  to  fulfil  this  questiona- 
ble engagement,  and  accepted  of  their  proposal  to 
visit  him  previously  at  Quebec*     They  accompa- 
nied him  thither,  and,  exulting  in  the  prospect  of 
approaching  triumph,  spent  five  or  six  days  in  dan- 
cing and  festivity,  while  Champlain  procured  a  re- 
enforcement  from  Tndoussac.     He  set  out  with  his 
new  allies  on  the  28th  May  ;  and  in  a  short  time, 
having  passed  through  Lake  St.  Pierre,  he  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  river  which  takes  its  rise  in  the 
country  of  the  Iroquois.     He    had  been  apprized 
that  fifteen  leagues  farther  up  there  was  a  consid- 
erable   fall,  but  had  been  led  to  hope  that  his  light 
shallop  might  be  conveyed  beyond  it.     On  recon- 
noitring the  spot,  he  found  this  to  be  quite  imprac- 
ticable, as  the  stream  from  bank  to  bank  was  dash- 
ing with  violence  amid  rocks  and  stones ;  and  hia 
party  had  not  strength  to  cufa  road  through  the 
woods.     Nothing,  however, could  damp  his  ardour; 
and,  in  the  failure  of  every  other  resource,  1  le  deter- 

♦  Champlain,  tome  i.,  liv.  iii.  ch.  7. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  137 

mined  to  commit  himself  to  the  canoes  of  the  sav- 
ages, and  share  their  fate.  As  soon,  however,  as 
this  was  announced  to  his  men,  they  "  bled  at  the 
nose  ;"  and  two  only  were  foinid  who  did  not  shrink 
from  accompanying  the  Indians.* 

By  carrying  their  canoes,  arms,  and  baggage  half 
a  league  overland,  the  natives  avoided  the  fall  and 
re-embarked.  When  night  approached  they  landed, 
reared  huts  covered  with  birch-bark,  and  having  cut 
down  large  trees,  formed  round  the  spot  a  barricade 
of  such  strength,  that  five  hundred  assailants  could 
not  have  stormed  it  without  much  difficulty.  They 
sent  some  of  their  number  to  reconnoitre  a  few 
miles  up  and  down  the  river,  but  rejected  the  advice 
of  their  European  ally  to  set  a  watch  during  the 
night.  High  conjurations  were  now  performed  by 
the  pilotois  or  priest,  who  was  placed  alone  in  a 
cabin,  while  the  multitude  sat  round  in  solemn  si- 
lence. Violent  and  mysterious  movements  shook 
the  wigwam,  which  the  Frenchman  clearly  perceived 
to  be  produced  by  its  crafty  inmate  ;  while,  in  an- 
swer to  his  solemn  call,  the  demon  appeared,  and, 
in  the  form  of  a  stone,  foretold  the  issue  of  the  en- 
f^rprise.  Solemn  sounds  overawed  the  spectators, 
though  it  was  easy  to  discover  that  they  were  all 
uttered  by  the  pilotois  himself.  The  French  chief 
was  also  every  morning  carefully  examined  regard- 
ing his  dreams,  and  great  exultation  was  expressed 
when  they  appeared  to  portend  success.  The  only 
drilling  employed  to  prepare  them  for  the  approach- 
ing battle  was' confined  to  their  taking  a  number  of 
canes,  one  for  each  man,  with  two  longer  ones  for 
the  chiefs,  and  fixing  them  in  the  ground  according 
to  the  order  in  which  the  troops  were  to  advance. 
The  Indians  then  practised  the  various  movements 
till  they  could  arrange  themselves  exactly  in  the 
same  manner.     The  river  was  diversified  with  nu- 

*  Champlain,  tome  i.,  liv.  lii.,  ch.  8. 
M2 


138  HISTORy     OF    CANADA 

merous  low  islands,  aoouuding  in  woods,  meadows, 
and  game,  but  deserted  in  consequence  of  the  deadly 
wars  which  had  for  some  time  been  raging.  It 
opened  into  an  extensive  lake,  now  named,  from 
our  traveller,  Chaniplain,  and  containing  four  large 
islands,  also  uninhabited.  They  had  reached  its 
southern  extremity,  and  even  entered  a  smaller  one 
(George)  connected  with  it,  when,  on  the  29th  June, 
at  ten  in  the  evening,  they  beheld  the  Iroquois,  who 
raised  loud  shouts  of  defiance,  and  began  hastily  to 
arm  and  to  form  a  barricade  with  trunks  of  trees. 
The  invaders  sent  two  canoes  to  ask  if  their  ad- 
versaries would  fight;  the  answer  was,  there  was 
nothing  they  more  desired,  but  the  hour  was  un- 
suitable, adding,  however,  that  they  would  be  ready 
next  morning  at  daybreak.  This  delay  was  ap- 
proved ;  but  the  two  parties,  instead  of  qualifying 
themselves  for  the  combat  by  taking  suitable  rest, 
danced  the  whole  night  without  intermission,  ex- 
changing the  most  imbittered  expressions  of  re- 
proach and  contempt.  The  Algonquins  being  told 
that  neither  their  courage  nor  arms  were  of  any 
value,  and  that  to-morrow  would  witness  their  doom, 
threw  out  in  return  mysterious  hints  that  their  ad- 
versaries would  then  see  something  never  before 
witnessed.  In  the  morning  they  landed,  and  the 
French  chief  saw  the  enemy  come  out  of  their  bar- 
ricade, two  hundred  strong,  firm  and  robust,  headed 
by  leaders  with  waving  plumes,  and  advancing  with  J 
a  bold  and  determined  aspect,  which  struck  him  with ' 
admiration.  He  and  his  two  countrymen  stationed  t 
themselves  at  diflferent  points,  and  the  natives  made 
way  for  him  to  go  about  twenty  paces  in  front.  He 
then  fired  an  arquebus,  loaded  with  four  balls,  by 
which  two  Indians  were  killed  and  one  mortally 
wounded.  His  allies  raised  shouts  which  would 
have  drowned  the  loudest  thunder,  while  the  enemy 
were  astounded  at  seeing  armour,  proof  against  na- 
tive weapons,  pierced  by  this  unknown  instrument 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  139 

of  destruction.  Yet  they  still  poured  in  clouds  of 
arrows,  till  another  shot,  fired  from  a  thicket,  excited 
such  a  degree  of  fear  that  they  fled  precipitately, 
abandoning  their  fort,  and  seeking  refuge  in  the 
heart  of  the  forest.  A  number  were  killed,  and  ten 
or  twelve  taken  prisoners.* 

The  savages,  having  celebrated  their  victory  with 
dance  and  festival,  immediately  began  their  return 
to  their  own  country.  After  travelling  sixteen 
leagues,  they  took  one  of  the  captives,  and  in  a  for- 
mal harangue  recounted  to  him  all  the  cruelties 
of  his  countrymen,  which  he  must  now  expiate; 
they  then  summoned  him,  if  he  were  a  man  of  cour- 
age, to  sing.  He  did  so,  though  in  a  somewhat  lu- 
gubrious tone.  Champlain,  then,  was  perhaps  the 
first  Kuropean  who  beheld  that  horrid  scene  of  tor- 
ture, which  we  spare  our  readers,  though  described 
by  him  in  the  most  minute  detail.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever, witness  that  stoical  apathy  so  often  displayed, 
for  the  sufferer  occasionally  uttered  loud  shrieks, 
though  his  fortitude  was,  on  the  whole,  wonderful. 
The  Frenchman  was  asked  why  he  did  not  join  in 
this  triumphant  vengeance ;  and  when  he  declared 
that  the  sight  gave  him  pain,  and  even  showed  a 
disposition  to  withdraw,  they  allowed  him  to  termi- 
nate the  scene  by  a  discharge  of  his  arquebus. 
The  most  shocking  indignities  were  inflicted  on  the 
lifeless  bodj' ;  even  the  heart  was  plucked  out  and 
cut  in  small  pieces,  which  the  other  prisoners  were 
compelled  to  receive  into  their  mouths,  though  tliey 
were  not  expected  to  swallow  the  horrid  morsel. 
The  Algonquins  marched  on  with  the  remaining 
Iroquois,  who  continued  to  sing,  though  fully  aware 
of  their  approaching  fate.  Another  employment  of 
the  victors  was  to  ornament  the  heads  of  the  slain, 
to  be  displayed  in  triumph  on  their  arrival.  With 
this  view  they  earnestly  solicited  from  Champlain 

*  Champlain,  tome  i.,  liv.  ui.,  cb. 


140  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

some  copies  of  the  paternoster,  which  sacred  arti- 
cle, amid  all  his  professions  of  piety,  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  bestow  for  this  profane  purpose.  Thus 
prepared,  as  the  party  approached  home,  the  heads 
were  fastened  on  the  ends  of  poles,  and  exhibited 
to  the  women,  who  came  swimming  across  the  river 
to  meet  their  lords.  The  adventurer  himself  was 
presented  with  one  of  these  savage  trophies,  with  a 
request  that  he  would  offer  it  to  his  sovereign,  ; 
which,  to  please  them,  he  engaged  to  do.* 

On  the  author's  return  from  this  expedition,  which 
seemed  to  hold  out  a  great  promise  of  ultimate  suc- 
cess, he  was  greeted  with  unfavourable  tidings  from 
France.  The  merchants  of  that  country,  to  his  deep 
indignation,  though,  we  think,  with  very  good  reason, 
had  raised  loud  complaints  of  the  injury  which  they, 
as  well  as  the  nation  at  large,  sustained  by  the  fur- 
trade  being  confined  to  a  single  individual.  De 
Mont's  commission  was  in  consequence  revoked, 
and  his  lieutenant  was  obliged  to  return  home.  He 
gave  an  account  of  his  transactions,  first  to  his  pa- 
tron, and  then  to  the  king,  who  listened  to  them  with 
much  satisfaction.  All  his  attempts,  however,  to 
procure  a  renewal  of  the  monopoly  proved  abortive; 
yet  such  was  his  zeal,  that  he  determined  even 
without  this  aid  to  retain  the  settlement.  To  light- 
en the  expense,  he  made  an  agreement  with  some 
traders  at  Rochelle,  to  give  them  the  use  of  his 
building  at  Quebec  as  a  depot  for  their  goods,  while 
they,  by  way  of  recompense,  engaged  to  assist  him 
in  his  plans  of  colonization.  He  was  thus  enabled 
in  1610  to  fit  out  Champlain  with  a  considerable  re- 
enforcement  and  fresh  supplies.! 

On  his  return  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  he  received 
an  application  from  the  Algonquins  to  assist  them 
in  a  new  war;  and  they  promised  to  join  him  with 
400  men  at  the  entrance  of  the  Iroquois  river.     Un- 

•  Champlain,  tome  i.,  liv.  iii.,  ch.  10.     t  Ibid.,  p.  152,  163 


UMJtiK     I'Ht;    FilENCH.  l4i 

JeterreJ  by  any  luoiive  eilhiT  of  fear  or  principle, 
and  seeiiiiiigiy  wUlioul  any  liesilatioii,  he  accepted 
Ihe  proposal ;  but,  on  reaching  the  spot,  affairs  were 
found  more  urgent  than  tiad  been  supposed.  A  ca- 
noe arrived  with  intelligence  that  a  hundred  of  the  en- 
emy were  so  strongly  intrenched  in  the  vicinity,  that, 
wuliout  the  aid  of  the  Mislhigosches,  as  the  French 
were  termed,  it  appeared  impossible  to  dislodge 
them.  Tlie  savages,  on  this  uiformation,  hurried 
on  board  of  their  canoes,  and  prevailed  on  their  Eu- 
ropean friend  to  quit  his  bark,  and  accompany  them 
with  four  of  his  countrymen.  On  landing,  the  na- 
tives ran  forward  so  swit'tly  that  they  were  soon 
out  of  the  sight  of  their  allies,  who  floundered  after 
them  through  woods  and  marshes,  tormented  by 
nioschetoes,  and  much  at  a  loss  for  their  way.  They 
met,  however,  an  Indian,  who  came  in  all  haste  to 
inform  them  that  his  brethren,  ill  acquainted  with 
military  tactics,  had  no  sooner  arrived,  than,  with- 
out waiting  for  the  French,  they  rushed  to  the  as- 
sault ;  and  that,  having  sustained  a  most  severe  re- 
pulse, in  which  several  of  their  chiefs  were  killed 
and  a  number  wounded,  all  their  hopes  were  now 
placed  in  their  au.xiliaries.  Having  proceeded  about 
half  a  mile,  they  heard  the  howlings  of  the  hostile 
parties,  who,  as  usual,  poured  on  each  other  tor- 
rents of  invective.  On  their  appearance,  these  il- 
lustrious allies  raised  shouts  louder  than  thunder, 
while  Uhamplain  advanced  to  reconnoitre  the  fort. 
He  found  it  very  strong,  composed,  according  to  the 
usual  fashion,  of  large  trees  fixed  close  together  in 
a  circle.  He  himself  was  immediately  wounded  in 
the  ear  and  neck  by  an  arrow  pointed  with  stone, 
yet  not  so  as  to  disable  him  from  acting.  At  the 
discharge  of  fire-arms  the  Iroquois,  who  seem  to 
have  been  a  difierent  party  from  those  formerly  en- 
countered, felt  the  same  astonishment  and  dismay. 
Covered  by  their  intrenchments,  however,  they  con- 
tinued to  pour  forth  clouds  of  darts,  and  Champlain, 


142  HISTORY    OP    CANADA 

whose  ammunition  began  to  fail,  urged  the  savages 
to  exert  themselves  in  forcing  a  way  into  the  barri- 
cade. He  made  them  fasten  ropes  round  the  trunks 
of  single  trees,  and  apply  all  tiieir  strength  to  drag 
them  out,  undertaking,  mean  time,  to  protect  them 
with  his  fire.  Fortunately,  at  this  moment,  a  party 
of  French  traders,  unconnected  with  our  leader,  be- 
ing seized  with  martial  ardour,  came  to  join  him; 
and  he  thought  it  fair  "  that  they  should  have  their 
share  in  the  diversion."  Under  their  cover,  the  Al- 
gonquins  pulled  so  stoutly,  that  a  sufficient  opening 
was  soon  made  ;  and  though  the  stumps  still  stood 
six  feet  high,  the  allies  leaped  in,  and  the  enemy 
were  completely  routed,  most  of  them  being  killed 
or  drowned,  and  fifteen  taken.  Of  the  assailants 
three  fell  in  the  action,  and  fifty  were  wounded. 
Instead  of  carrying  the  heads  of  the  slain,  they 
"  flayed  them,"  taking  the  scalps  as  their  trophy. 
Champlain  asked  and  obtained  one  of  the  captives, 
whom  he  saved  from  the  dreadful  tortures  which 
were  inflicted  on  most  of  the  others,  one  by  one,  at 
different  stages ;  the  rest  being  carefully  reserved 
for  their  wives  and  daughters,  who  took  peculiar  de- 
light in  these  scenes  of  savage  vengeance,  and  were 
even  ingenious  in  devising  new  and  exquisite  tor- 
ments. His  prisoner,  not  being  very  carefully 
guarded,  made  his  escape.  The  Frenchman,  before 
taking  leave  of  his  allies,  prevailed  on  them  to  al- 
low one  of  his  people  to  remain  with  them  and  learn 
their  language,  while  he,  at  their  request,  took  a  na- 
tive youth  with  him  to  Europe.* 

In  1611  Champlain  returned  to  America  with  his 
savage,  and  on  the  28th  May  arrived  at  the  place  of 
rendezvous  appointed  for  another  warlike  expedi- 
tion. Not  finding  the  Indians,  he  employed  his  time 
in  choosing  a  spot  for  a  new  settlement  higher  up 
the  river  than  Quebec.     After  a  careful  survey  he 

*  Champlain,  tome  L,  liv.  iii.,  ch.  11, 12. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH  143 

fixed  upon  ground  in  the  vicinity  of  an  eminence 
wliich  he  called  Mont  Royal;  and  his  choice  has 
been  amply  justified  by  the  prosperity  to  which  this 
place,  under  the  name  of  Montreal,  has  subsequent- 
ly risen.  He  cleared  a  considerable  spare,  sowtd 
some  grain,  and  enclosed  it  by  an  earthen  wall.  A 
distressing  accident  soon  afterward  occurred.  Sa- 
vignon,  the  native  who  had  accompanied  him  to 
France,  with  Louis,  a  European,  and  Outetoucos,  an 
Indian  leader,  set  out  on  a  hunting  excursion  to  an 
island  in  the  Chambly.  After  excellent  sport  they 
were  returning,  when  Savignon,  who  guided  the  ca- 
noe, proposed  to  make  a  circuit  to  avoid  a  danger- 
ous rapid.  The  chief,  however,  insisted  that  it  was 
quite  safe,  without  even  lightening  the  boat,  and  the 
other  allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  ;  but,  as  soon 
as  they  came  within  the  action  of  the  whirlpool,  the 
bark  was  tossed  up  and  down  in  the  most  violent  man- 
ner. Louis  was  thrown  into  the  water  and  drown 
ed.  The  chief  endeavoured  to  swim  to  land,  but 
could  not  stem  the  eddies,  and  sunk.  Savignon 
alone,  clinging  to  the  canoe,  whether  above  or  be- 
low water,  at  length  reached  the  shore.  Champlain, 
on  coming  to  the  spot,  could  scarcely  believe  it  pos- 
sible that  any  person  should  have  attempted  to  pass 
this  formidable  rapid.* 

At  length,  on  the  13th  of  June,  three  weeks  after 
the  time  appointed,  a  party  of  his  savage  friends  ap- 
peared. Ttiey  evinced  much  pleasure  at  meeting 
their  countryman,  who  gave  tlie  most  favourable  re- 
port of  the  treatment  which  he  had  received  in 
France  ;  and,  after  a  liberal  present  of  beaver-skins, 
they  unfolded  the  cause  of  this  long  delay.  The 
prisoner  who  escaped  the  previous  year  had  spread 
a  report  that  the  French,  having  now  resolved  to  es- 
pouse the  cause  of  the  Iroquois,  were  coming  in 
great  force  to  destroy  altogether  the  Algonquin  na 

*  Champlain,  tome  L,  liv.  lii.,  ch.  13 


144  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

tion.  Chaniplain  bitterly  complained  of  their  hav- 
ing listened  to  such  a  rumour,  which  all  his  actions 
belied.  They  protested  that  it  had  never  gained  cre- 
dence with  them,  but  only  with  those  of  their  tribe 
who  had  no  opportunity  of  knowing  the  foreigners. 
However,  having  received  solemn  protestations  of 
friendship,  they  declared  their  determination  of  ad- 
hering to  their  alliance,  and  aiding  to  the  utmost  of 
their  power  his  projects  of  penetrating  into  the  inte- 
rior. They  gave  him  very  extensive  information 
respecting  the  continent,  their  acquaintance  with 
which  was  found  to  reach  southward  as  far  as  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  They  agreed  to  his  proposal  of 
returning  with  forty  or  fifty  of  his  people  to  prose- 
cute discoveries,  and  even  form  settlements  in  the 
country.  The  warlike  designs,  for  some  reason 
not  explained,  appear  to  have  been  dropped  for  the 
present ;  but  they  requested  that  a  French  youth 
should  accompany  them  and  make  observations 
upon  their  territory  and  tribe.  They  asked  their 
visiter  to  use  his  influence  in  order  to  dissuade  one 
of  their  bravest  warriors,  who  had  been  three  times 
made  prisoner  by  the  Iroquois  and  always  escaped, 
to  relinquish  the  purpose  he  had  now  formed  of  set- 
ting out  with  only  nine  companions  to  attack  the  en- 
emy and  avenge  his  former  wrongs.  Attempts  were 
made  to  divert  him  from  so  rash  a  purpose;  but,  ex- 
hibiting his  fingers  partly  cut  off  and  his  whole  body 
covered  with  wounds,  he  declared  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  live  unless  he  obtained  revenge.* 

Chaniplain  again  returned  to  France  with  the  view  , 
of  making  arrangements  for  those  more  extensive 
operations  which  he  contemplated  and  had  recom- 
mended to  his  Indian  allies.  The  negotiation  was 
attended  wiih  difficulty.  De  Monts,  who  had  been 
appointed  governor  of  Saintonge,  was  no  longer  in 
clined  to  take  the  lead,  and  excused  himself  from 

•  Champlain,  tome  i.,  liv  jii.,  ch.  li. 


UNDER   THE    PUENCH.  145 

going  to  court,  on  account  of  the  urgency  of  his 
own  affairs.     He  committed  the  whole  to  his  former 
agent,  advising  hirji  to  seek  some  powerful  protect- 
or, whose  authority  miglit  overcome  the  opposition 
to  his  plans.     Our  adventurer  was  so  fortunate  as 
almost  immediately  to  gain  the  Count  de  Soissons, 
who  obtained  the  title  of  Lieutenant-general  of  New 
France,  and  who,  by  a  A)nial  agreement,  delegated 
to  him  all  the  functions  of  that  higti  office.     The 
count  died  soon  after;  but  a  still  more  influential 
friend  was  found  in  the  Prince  of  Conde,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  all  the  privileges  of  the  deceased,  and 
made  them  over  in  a  manner  equally  ample.     His 
commission,  including  a  monopoly  of  the  trade,  ex- 
cited  loud  complaints  among  the  merchants ;   but 
our  author  endeavoured  to  remove  the  principal  ob- 
jection by  allowing  as  many  of  them  to  embark  in 
the  traffic  as  chose  to  accompany  him.     There  came 
accordingly  three  from  Normandy,  one  from  Ro- 
chelle,  and  one  from  St.  Malo.     These  were  allow- 
ed free  trade,  burdened  only  with  the  condition  of 
contributing  six  men  each  to  assist  in  his  projects 
of  discovery,  and  a  twentieth  of  their  profits  to  de- 
fray the  expenses  of  settlement.* 

In  the  beginning  of  March,  1613,t  this  expedition 
sailed  from  Honfleur,  and  on  the  7th  May  arrived 
at  Quebec.  Champlain,  however,  had  an  aim  which 
diverted  him  from  his  grand  schemes  of  war  and 
discovery  in  the  west.  Among  the  objects  of  ad- 
venture in  that  age,  a  favourite  one  was  a  northwest 
passage  to  China ;  hence  everything  connected  with 
the  report  of  a  sea  beyond  Canada  inspired  the  great- 
est hopes.  There  was  a  Frenchman  named  Nicolas 
de  Vignau,  who  had  accompanied  our  traveller  in 

*  Cliamplain,  tome  i.,  !iv.  iv.,  ch.  5. 

+  Champlain's  dates  are  jumbled  in  the  most  confused  man- 
ner; but  on  comparing  page  312  with  pages  215  and  246,  it  will 
be  evident  ihat  the  one  here  given  is  correct,  though  the  narra 
live  of  his  voyage  precedes  the  account  of  his  departure. 


146  History  of  canada 

former  expeditions,  and  spent  a  winter  among  the 
savages.  This  person  reported  that  the  river  of  the 
Algonquins  (the  Ottawa)  issued  from  a  lake  which 
was  connected  with  the  North  Sea;  that  he  had 
visited  its  shores,  and  had  there  witnessed  the  wreck 
of  an  Enghsh  vessel.  The  crew,  eighty  in  number, 
h.td  reached  the  shore,  where  they  had  all  been 
killed  and  scalped  by  the  inhabitants,  except  one 
boy,  whom  they  would  have  been  happy  to  present 
to  him,  along  with  the  trophies  of  their  victory 
Wishing  to  assure  himself  as  to  this  story,  the  nav- 
igator caused  the  man  to  sign  his  declaration  before 
two  notaries,  warning  him,  if  it  were  false,  that  he 
was  putting  a  rope  round  his  own  neck.  Finding 
the  fellow  persevere,  and  learning  that  some  English 
vessels  had  really  been  wrecked  in  1612  on  the 
coast  of  Labrador,  his  doubts  were  removed,  and  he 
determined  to  devote  a  season  to  the  prosecution  of 
this  grand  object. 

With  this  view  he  did  not  stop  at  Quebec,  but, 
setting  sail  on  the  13th  May,  arrived  on  the  21st  at 
the  fall  of  St.  Louis.  Here,  with  only  two  canoes, 
containing  four  of  his  countrymen  and  one  native, 
he  began  his  voyage  up  the  river.  The  hardships 
and  difficulties  were  very  severe.  He  encountered 
a  succession  of  cataracts  and  rapids,  which  it  was 
necessary  to  avoid  by  carrying  the  skiffs  and  stores 
overland.  Sometimes  the  woods  being  too  dense 
to  admit  of  this,  it  became  requisite  to  drag  them 
through  the  foaming  current,  not  without  danger  of 
being  themselves  ingulfed.  If  they  had  lost  their 
boats,  they  could  neither  have  proceeded  back  nor 
forward,  unless  by  the  mere  accident  of  meeting 
with  friendly  Indians.  There  was  reason,  besides, 
to  dread  an  attack  from  some  wandering  bands  of 
Iroquois,  who,  if  victorious,  would  have  doubtless 
treated  the  French  as  they  treated  their  Algonquin 
captives.  As  the  difficulties  ofnavigation  increased, 
they  were  obliged  to  leave  their  corn  behind,  and 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  147 

trust  entirely  to  their  guns  and  nets,  which  afforded 
a  precarious  and  somewhat  scanty  supply.  Nicolas, 
to  our  author's  surprise,  was  forward  in  recommend- 
ing parts  of  the  river  which  the  natives  declared  to 
be  highly  dangerous.  At  length  the  party  reached 
the  abode  of  Tessouat,  a  friendly  chief,  whose  coun- 
try was  only  eight  days'  sail  from  that  of  the  Nebi- 
cerini  (Nipissings),on  whose  borders  the  shipwreck 
was  said  to  have  occurred.  The  people  received 
our  adventurer  courteously,  and  agreed  to  his  re- 
quest of  admission  to  a  solemn  council.  It  was 
preceded  by  an  entertainment  of  boiled  maize,  with 
meat  and  fish  ;  after  which  the  young  men  went  out, 
and  the  old  took  their  pipes  and  smoked  for  half  an 
hour  in  silence.  Champlain  being  then  asked  his 
object  in  soliciting  the  interview,  after  many  cour- 
teous professions  requested  four  canoes  to  escort 
him  into  the  country  of  the  Nipissings,  which  he 
earnestly  desired  to  visit.  To  this  the  Indians  de- 
murred, stating  that  the  route  was  very  difficult,  and 
that  they  were  bad  men  and  sorcerers,  who  had 
caused  the  death  of  many  of  their  tribe  ;  neverthe- 
less, upon  his  earnest  entreaty,  they  at  length  con- 
sented. After  the  meeting  had  broken  up,  however, 
the  French  chief  learned  that  there  was  a  great  in- 
disposition to  fulfil  the  engagement,  and  that  no  one 
could  be  found  who  was  willing  to  accompany  him. 
He  therefore  again  called  them  together;  reproached 
them  with  their  meditated  breach  of  faith ;  and  in 
refutation  of  their  assertions  of  danger  as  arising 
from  the  people,  referred  to  the  fact  of  Nicolas  hav- 
ing spent  some  time  among  them  without  any  an- 
noyance. Hereupon  De  Vignau  was  called  on  to 
say  if  he  had  ever  made  such  a  journey  ;  and  when, 
after  long  hesitation,  he  answered  in  the  affirmative, 
they  raised  loud  and  fierce  cries,  declaring  that  he 
was  speaking  falsely,  having  never  passed  beyond 
their  country,  where  ho  had  gone  to  bed  with 
them  every  evening  and  risen  every  morning ;  and 


1  48  HISTORY    OF   CANADA 

that  he  ought  to  be  tortured  to  death  for  having 
80  grossly  deceived  his  chief.  Champlain,  seeing 
nio  follower  a  good  deal  confused,  took  him  aside, 
and  adjured  him  to  state  the  truth.  The  fellow, 
however,  having  recovered  his  confidence,  renewed 
his  former  averments,  and  gave  the  fullest  assurance 
that,  if  canoes  could  be  procured,  they  would,  ere 
long,  reach  the  spot.  The  commander,  unable  to 
believe  that  any  individual  could  persevere  in  such 
audacious  falsehoods,  went  back  to  the  savages,  re- 
ferred to  the  interior  sea,  the  English  shipwreck, 
the  eighty  scalps,  and  the  young  boy  in  possession 
of  the  natives.  Hereupon  they  shouted  louder  than 
ever,  proclaiming  his  deceit  to  be  now  quite  palpa- 
ble. They  began  to  put  close  interrogatories,  to 
which  he  returned  only  unsatisfactory  replies. 
Champlain,  extremely  perplexed,  called  him  again 
to  a  private  interview^,  and  told  him  that  everything 
already  past  should  be  forgiven ;  but  that  if,  by  per- 
sisting in  false  assertions,  he  should  induce  the  ex- 
pedition to  go  any  farther,  he  would  most  assuredly 
be  hanged.  The  man  then,  after  rentaining  silent 
for  some  time,  fell  on  his  knees  and  confessed  that 
all  he  had  said,  and  which  had  induced  his  master 
to  undertake  so  long  and  painful  a  journey,  was  a 
complete  untruth.  The  motives  of  this  crime  had 
been  the  eclat  derived  from  the  supposed  discovery, 
and  the  being  brought  out  to  New^  France  in  a  con- 
spicuous situation.  He  had  trusted  that  the  obsta- 
cles would  be  such  as,  at  some  earlier  point,  to  lead 
his  superior  to  renounce  the  attempt ;  and  with  this 
view,  in  passing  the  falls,  he  had  urged  him  to  prefer 
the  most  dangerous  channels.  Champlain  was 
obliged  to  inform  the  Indians  that  they  were  right, 
and  himself  egregiously  deceived.  They  earnestly 
entreated  him  to  place  the  liar  in  their  hands,  who 
they  would  take  effectual  care  should  never  agam 
deceive  him.  But,  though  much  and  justly  enraged, 
he  resolved  honourably  to  redeem  his  pledge.     He 


UNDKK    THE    FRENCH.  149 

had  the  vexation,  however,  to  reflect,  that  not  only 
had  he  encountered  in  vain  a  long  series  of  labours 
and  fatigues,  but  that  the  whole  season  had  been 
spent  without  any  effort  to  proinole  other  objects 
which  he  had  much  at  heart.  He  had  now  no  al- 
ternative but  to  commence  his  voyage  down  the  Ot- 
tawa, and  on  his  way  lie  was  joined  by  a  considerable 
number  of  savage  allies,  who  rendezvoused  at  the  fall 
of  St.  Louis-  They  agreed,  though  with  difficulty, 
to  allow  two  young  Frenchmen  to  accompany  them, 
with  tlie  view  of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the  coun- 
try. Champlain  left  also  De  Vignau,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  his  falsehood  ;  who  promised  to  make  fur- 
ther discoveries,  and  to  reach,  if  possible,  the  North 
Sea ;  but  none  of  the  natives  would  have  any  inter- 
course with  him.  Our  author  then  sailed  to  Tadous- 
sac,  and  thence  to  St.  Malo,  where  he  arrived  on 
the  26th  August,  1014.* 

Affairs  in  France  continued  favourable  to  the  col- 
ony. The  Prince  of  Conde  being  still  powerful 
at  court,  no  ditficulty  was  found  in  equipping  an 
expedition  from  Rouen  and  St.  Malo,  though  it  gave 
some  discontent  to  the  merchants  of  Rochelle,  who 
were  excluded  on  account  of  their  not  having  come 
in  time.  They  were  accompanied  by  Anir  Fathers 
Recollets,  whose  benevolence  led  them  to  attempt 
the  conversion  of  the  Indians. f 

Champlain,  with  this  new  company,  arrived  on 
the  25th  of  May,  1615,  at  Tadoussac,  where  he  im- 
mediately pushed  up  to  Quebec,  and  thence  to  the 
place  of  rendezvous  at  the  fall  of  St.  Louis.  He 
found  his  old  allies  there,  full  of  projects  of  war 
against  the  Iroquois,  whom  they  proposed  now  to 
assail  among  the  lakes  to  the  westward  ;  and  they 
promised  to  muster  for  this  attack  no  fewer  than 
2500  fighting  men.     The  Frenchman,  never  slow  to 

*  Champlain,  tome  i  ,  liv.  iv.,  ch.  1,2,  3. 
+  lbul.,toine  i  ,  p.  313-317. 

1— M 


150  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

embark  in  such  enterprises,  now  laid  down  a  plan 
of  operations,  at  which  they  expressed  the  utmost 
satisfaction.      He    accompanied    them    in   a    long 
route,   first  up  the    Ottawa,  then,   partly  carrying 
the  canoes  overland,  partly  launching  them  on  small 
pieces  of  water,  till  they  came  to  Lake  Nipissing, 
northward  to  that  of  Huron.     The  country  through 
which  he  passed  is  described   as  in  many  places 
broken   and   rocky,  though   not  mountainous,  and 
completely  uncultivated ;  yet  there  was  a  profusion 
of  berries  and  delicate  small  fruits,  which  the  na- 
tives preserved    for  winter  use.     The    Nipissings, 
about  700  or  800  in    number,    who   inhabited    the 
shores  of  this  lake,  received  the  party  well.     After 
remaining  two  days,  they  made  their  way  by  land 
and  water  to  the  coast  of  the  great  lake  Attigou- 
antan,  which  appeared  a  complete  fresh-water  sea, 
300  leagues  in  length  by  50  in  breadth.     It  is  evi- 
dently the  northern  part  of  Lake  Huron,  apparently 
separated  into  a  distinct  body  of  water  by  the  con- 
tinuous chain  of  islands  which  extend  parallel   to 
this  shore.*     After  coasting  it  for  about  forty-five 
leagues,  they  turned  a  point  which  forms  its   ex- 
tremity, and  struck  into  the  interior,  with  the  view 
of  reaching  Cahiague,  the  appointed  rendezvous  of 
their  savage  friends.     This  country  was  found  much 
superior  to  that  hitherto  passed,  being  well  cultiva- 
ted, and  abounding  in  Lidian  corn  and  fruits.     At 
the  place  just  mentioned,  a  large  body  were   found 
collected,  who  gave  them  a  joyful  welcome,  stating 
their  expectation  of  five  hundred  more,  who   also 
considered  the  Iroquois  as  enemies.     While  their 
forces  were  mustering,  several  days  was  spent  in 
dancing  and  festivity,  the  usual  prelude   to   their 
expeditions.     They  then  set  out  and  passed  several 
small  lakes,  one  of   which    led   to  the  great  one, 
Vi'hich  they  now  named  Entouhonorons  (Huron) 

'  Clia  nplain,  tome  i.,  liv.  iv.,  ch.  6. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  151 

On  the  way  they  employed  themselves  in  several 
hunting  parties.  Upon  one  occasion  they  made  a 
large  circle,  enclosing  the  whole  of  a  promontory 
that  stretched  into  the  lake ;  after  which,  by  loud 
cries  and  volleys  of  arrows,  they  drove  all  the  ani- 
mals to  the  extreme  point,  where  they  were  either 
taken  or  threw  themselves  into  the  water.  To 
meet  this  last  case  a  range  of  canoes  were  drawn 
up,  and  the  quadrupeds  fell  beneath  the  weapons 
darted  from  either  side.  Having  met  a  detachment 
returning  with  a  band  of  prisoners,  our  adventurer 
was  shocked  to  see  them  begin  the  horrid  work  of 
torment  upon  a  female,  and  reproached  the  leader 
with  a  cruelty  so  unworthy  of  a  genuine  warrior. 
The  Indian  replied,  that  it  was  no  more  than  the 
enemy  did  to  his  country-women;  but,  in  courtesy 
to  his  ally,  he  would  desist,  retaining,  however,  his 
full  right  to  torture  the  men. 

After  quitting  the  Huron  Lake,  they  struck  into 
the  interior,  and  came  to  a  smaller  expanse  of  wa- 
ter, finely  diversified  by  islands,  which  seems  to 
be  Lake  George.  On  its  banks  they  descried  the 
Iroquois  fort,  which,  in  expectation  of  this  attack, 
had  been  rendered  peculiarly  strong.  It  was  de- 
fended by  four  successive  palisades  of  trees  twined 
together,  with  strong  parapets  at  top :  and  it  enclo- 
'  sed  a  pond  wlience  streams  were  led  to  the  different 
quarters,  with  the  view  of  extinguishing  fire.  They 
had  advanced,  and  were  skirmishing  with  success 
against  their  assailants ;  but  when  the  firearms  be- 
gan to  play,  and  they  heard  the  balls  whizzing  about 
their  ears,  they  hastily  retreated  within  the  ram- 
part. Thence,  however,  they  poured  forth  showers 
of  arrows  and  stones,  which  induced  the  allies,  in 
spite  of  the  exhortations  and  reproaches  of  Cham- 
plain,  to  withdraw  beyond  their  reach.  He  now, 
however,  endeavoured  to  train  them  to  the  use  of 
European  machinery,  teaching  them  to  construct 
with  wood  an  elevated  enclosure  of  planks,  called 


152  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

a  cavalier,  which  should  command  the  enemy's  in- 
trenchnient.     The  discharge  from  this  platform  was 
meant  to  drive  them  from  the  parapet,  and  afford 
to  the   assailants  an    opportunity  of  setting  fire  to 
the   defences.     The    savages   showed    the    utmost 
activity  in  constructing  this   work,  which  they  fin- 
ished in  four  hours,  and  200  of  the  strongest  moved 
it  forward  close  to  the  pallisade.     The  shot  from  it 
drove  the  Iroquois  into  the  interior  of  their  strong- 
hold, whence  they  still  continued  to  return  missiles 
of  various  kinds.     The  Indians  might  now,  with  the 
greatest   ease,  have    set  the   fort  in  a   blaze ;    but 
Champlain  soon  found  that  he  had  to  do  with  men 
who  would  make  war  only  as  they  were  inclined 
and  accustomed.     Instead   of  following  his  direc- 
tions, they  preferred  to  pour  out  execrations  upon 
the  enemy,  and  shoot  arrows  against  the  strong 
wooden  defences.     At  length  they  began  to  throw 
pieces  of  burning  timber,  but  carelessly,  and  with 
little  effect.     Their  European  ally  called  out  to  them 
in  what  manner  to  proceed  ;  but  the  field  was  filled 
with  such  clamour  and  confusion,  that  his  voice  was 
lost  amid  the   tumult.     The  Iroquois,  mean  time, 
drew  water  from  their  reservoir  so  copiously,  that 
streams  flowed  through  every  part  of  the  fortress, 
and  the  slight  fires  were  speedily  quenched.     Ta- 
king advantage  of  the  disorder  in  the  adverse  ranks, 
-they  made  arrows  descend  like  hail,  which  pierced 
two  chiefs  and  a  number  of  their  followers.     Cham- 
plain  himself  was  twice  wounded  in  the  leg.     His 
allies  hereupon  felt  a  strong  inclination  to  retire, 
and,  as  usual,  they  followed  their  own  views,  with- 
out any  regard  to'his  exhortations.     They  justified 
themselves  by  alleging  the  absence  of  the  500  aux- 
iliaries, promising,  on  their  arrival,  to  renew  the 
assault.     Although,  therefore,  for  two  days  a  strong 
wind  blew  most  favourably  for  another  attempt,  no- 
thinff  could  induce  them  to  advance.     Several  petty 
attacks  were  made,  but  with  so  little  success,  that 
the  French  were  always  obliged  to  come  to  the  res- 


UNDER    THK    FREMCH.  153 

cue;  while  the  enemy  bitterly  taunted  the  Algon- 
quins  as  unable  to  cope  with  them  in  a  fair  field, 
and  obliged  to  seek  ihe  odious  aid  ol'  this  strange  and 
unknown  race. 

As  the  re-enforcement  did  not  appear,  the  savages 
determined  to  abandon  the  enterprise  altogether, 
and  return  homeward.  The  retreat  was  conducted  . 
with  a  degree  of  skill  and  judgment  wliich  had  not' 
appeared  in  any  of  their  offensive  operations.  They 
placed  the  wounded  and  aged  in  tlie  centre,  while 
armed  warriors  guarded  tlie  front,  rear,  and  danks. 
The  Iroquois  followed  a  short  way,  but  soon  gave 
up  the  pursuit.  If,  however,  the  safety  of  the  dis- 
abled was  well  provided  for,  their  comfort  was  very 
little  considered.  'I'heir  bodies  were  bent  into  a 
circular  form,  bound  with  cords,  and  thrown  into  a 
basket,  where  they  lay  like  infants  in  swaddling- 
clothes,  unable  to  stir  hand  or  foot.  Champlain 
feelingly  describes  the  agonies  he  endured  while 
carried  twenty-five  or  thirty  leagues  in  this  position, 
on  being  relieved  from  which  he  felt  as  if  he  had 
come  out  of  a  dungeon. 

He  now  claimed  Ihe  promise  to  convey  him  home 
after  his  campaign.  First,  however,  guides  were 
wanting,  then  a  canoe;  and  he  soon  found  thatihey 
were  determined  to  detain  him  and  his  companions, 
with  a  view  to  their  defence  in  case  of  attaci<,  or 
to  aid  them  in  future  expeditions.  He  was  very  ill 
provided  for  winter  in  so  desolate  a  region  ;  bat  a 
chief,  Darontal,  gave  him  his  hovel,  built  in  the  t)ost 
Indian  style,  and  he  found  considerable  amusement 
in  their  hunting  excursions.  On  one  occasion  they 
constructed  a  wooden  enclosure  of  a  triangular 
form,  each  side  nearly  a  mile  long,  with  a  narrow 
opening  at  the  point,  into  which,  by  loud  cries,  and 
imitating  the  howling  of  wolves,  they  contrived 
to  drive  all  the  A^er  in  the  vicinity.  The  aper- 
ture being  then  shut,  the  animals  became  an  easy 
prey.* 

*  Cb^mplain,  tome  i.,  liv.  iv.,  ch.  7. 


154  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

On  the  20th  May  of  the  following  year  Chainplain 
set  out,  and  found  himself  in  the  end  of  June  at  the 
Sault  St.  Louis.  Having  remained  there  a  short 
time,  he  repaired  to  Tadoussac,  whence  he  sailed, 
and  arrived  at  Honfleur  on  the  10th  September,  1616  * 

Tlie  interests  of  the  colony  were  now  in  consid- 
erable jeopardy.  The  Prince  of  Conde,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  share  taken  by  him  in  the  disturbances 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIIL,  was  not  only  in 
disgrace,  but  under  confinement.  The  Marshal  de 
Themines,  however,  was  prevailed  upon  to  under- 
take the  duties  of  the  situation,  on  condition  of  sha- 
ring its  emoluments.  Unfortunately,  he  was  soon 
involved  in  controversy  with  the  merchants,  and 
after  many  and  tedious  transactions,  during  two 
years  and  a  half,  the  Duke  de  Montmorency  was 
induced  to  treat  with  Conde  for  his  office  of  viceroy, 
and  obtained  it  upon  the  paymentof  11,000 crowns. 
Champlain  considered  this  arrangement  as  every 
way  eligible,  the  duke  being  better  qualified  for  such 
functions,  and,  from  his  situation  of  high  admiral, 
possessing  the  best  means  of  forwarding  the  object. 
A  body  of  associated  merchants  had  already,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1619,  agreed  to  send  out  a  larger  colony  than 
any  preceding  one,  of  eighty  persons,  including  three 
friars,  with  the  necessary  supply  of  furniture,  arms, 
seed-corn,  and  domestic  animals.  Their  departure 
was,  however,  delayed  a  whole  year  by  the  disputes 
between  Rochelle  and  other  commercial  cities,  and 
between  the  Protestants  and  the  Catholics.  At- 
tempts were  also  made  to  degrade  Champlain  from 
the  high  situation  in  which  he  had  been  placed  ;  but 
by  virtue  of  commissions  both  from  Montmorency 
and  the  king,  he  succeeded  in  crushing  this  opposi- 
tion.! 

In  May,  1620,  he  set  sail  with  his  new  equipment 
and,  after  a  very  tedious  voyage,  anchored  on  the 

»  Champlain,  tome  i.,  p.  396-398. 
t  Ibid.,  tome  i.,  liv.  iv.,ch.  4 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  155 

7th  July  near  the  port  of  Tadoussac.  He  found 
that,  during  his  long  absence,  the  settlements  had 
been  considerably  neglected,  especially  at  Trois 
Rivieres,  which  he  enlarged  and  defended  by  a  fort, 
placed  on  a  mountain  that  commanded  the  passage 
ol  the  river.  After  all  that  had  been  done  for  the 
colony,  there  remained,  when  winter  arrived,  not 
more  than  sixty  inhabitants,  including  women,  chil- 
dren, and  clergy,  and  ten  of  the  number  were  em- 
ployed in  establishing  a  religious  seminary.* 

The  following  year,  as  soon  as  the  season  per- 
mitted, a  vessel  was  sent  out  with  letters  from  Mont- 
morency and  his  secretary,  announcing  a  change 
which  greatly  surprised  and  by  no  means  delighted 
our  commander.  The  association  of  merchants 
who  had  fitted  out  the  last  expedition  were  deprived 
of  all  their  privileges  by  the  duke,  who  had  intrust- 
ed the  care  of  the  colony  to  the  Sieurs  de  Caen,  un- 
cle and  nephew,  one  a  merchant  and  the  other  a 
mariner,  the  latter  of  whom  was  to  visit  it  person- 
ally in  the  course  of  the  summer.  The  local  gov- 
ernor, who  saw  many  causes  of  complamt  against 
the  merchants,  had  no  ground  on  which  he  could  ob- 
ject to  this  arrangement;  yet  he  was  thereby  vir- 
tually divested  of  his  command,  and  subjected  to 
the  control  of  another,  armed  with  formidable  pow- 
ers.f 

About  the  middle  of  July  he  received  notice  that 
De  Caen  had  arrived  at  Tadoussac,  and  was  desi- 
rous of  an  interview.  After  some  delay,  he  set  out, 
and  met  him  on  the  3d  August.  He  was  received 
with  the  utmost  courtesy,  but  soon  found  the  new 
superintendent  disposed  to  act  in  a  very  violent  and 
arbitrary  manner.  He  claimed  the  right  of  seizing 
all  the  vessels  belonging  to  the  associated  mer- 
chants, which  might  have  come  out  for  the  purpose 
of  traffic ;  and  he  actually  took  that  of  Du  Pont, 

♦  Champlain,  lome  ii ,  liv.  i.,  ch.  1. 
t  Ibid  ,  tome  ii.,  liv.  i.,  ch.  a. 


156  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

their  favourite  agent,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  cui 
author.  Champlain  remonstrated  strongly  against 
these  proceedings,  but  without  any  effect,  as  he  pos- 
sessed no  power  which  could  eflfectually  check  the 
violence  of  this  new  dictator.  De  Caen,  however, 
left  a  supply  of  provisions,  arms,  and  ammunition ; 
though  this  last  is  said  to  have  been  both  scanty  and 
ill  adapted  to  its  object.  In  consequence  of  these 
arrangements,  a  great  part  of  the  population  con- 
nected with  the  European  traders  took  their  depar- 
ture, while  the  agent  of  Montmorency  had  brought 
only  eighteen  new  settlers;  so  that  the  colony,  in- 
stead of  being  augmented,  was  thereby  reduced  to 
forty- eight.* 

Notwithstanding  these  vexatious  occurrences,  as 
soon  as  the  governor  had  time  to  breathe,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  discovery  and  settlement  ni  the  in- 
terior. He  formed  an  intimate  connexion  with  a 
Huron  who  had  assumed  the  name  of  Mahigan 
Aticq  (Wolf  Stag),  to  express  the  union  of  ferocity 
and  mildness  which  became  the  savage  character. 
Through  him  intelligence  was  received  of  a  propo- 
sal made  to  terminate  the  long  and  desolating  war 
which  had  raged  between  his  nation  and  that  of  the 
Iroquois.  Champlain,  on  former  occasions,  when 
such  an  accommodation  was  mentioned,  earnestly 
represented  to  them  its  great  advantages ;  and  he 
now  expressed  the  utmost  anxiety  to  forward  it. 
Learning,  therefore,  that  two  individuals  of  the  hos- 
tile people  had  arrived  at  Trois  Rivieres,  he  invited 
them  to  Quebec,  and  met  them  at  a  village  of  friend- 
ly Indians  in  that  vicinity.  On  his  arrival,  Mahigan 
took  his  hand,  kissed  and  locked  his  own  into  it, 
causing  the  two  strangers  to  do  the  same  to  his  com- 
panions. Thus,  hand  in  hand,  they  entered  the  chief 
cabin,  where  a  number  of  the  natives  were  seated, 
according  to  their  respective  ranks,  and  learned  with 

*  Champlain,  tome  ii.,  liv.  i.,  ch.  4. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  16t 

satisfaction  the  good  understanding  that  now  pre- 
vailed.    They  then  proceeded  to  the  important  oper 
ation  of  dancing,  which  was  kept  up  a  longtime  by 
the  alhes  and  the  three  visiters ;  then  each  of  them 
kissed  his  hand,  and  put  theirs  into  that  of  the  gov- 
ernor.    Tlie  Hurons  now  danced  in  a  body,  men, 
women,  and  children,  when  harmony  was  consider- 
ed as  completely  established.     At  this  stage  the  Iro- 
quois explained  their  object,  which  Chaniplain  read- 
ily engaged  to  promote.     They  represented  this  pro- 
posal for  amity  as  proceeding  entirely  from  them- 
selves, and  that  they  came  not  as  authorized  envoys ; 
though  this,  we  suspect,  was  rather  to  avoid  prema- 
turely committing  tiie  nation.     Tiie  Hurons,  howev- 
er, treated  them  with  friendship,  and,  in  concurrence 
with  their   French  ally,  determined    upon  sending 
four  of  their  number  to  complete,  if  possible,  the 
negotiation  opened  under  such  favourable  auspices.* 
On  arriving    at  the   headquarters  of  the   Iroquois, 
they  met  a  very  kind  reception,  and  t!ie  treaty  was 
nearly  concluded,  when  it  was  almost  broken  off  by 
an  event  strikingly  characteristic  of  this  fierce  inde- 
pendent race.     Even  before  they  set  out,  a  savage, 
whom  the  French  named  Simon,  declared  his  deter- 
mination to  accompany  them,  but  in  a  hostile  char- 
acter, singly  to  wage  war  against  this  hated  enemy; 
and  such,  in  this  rude  tribe,  was  the  total  want  of 
any  public  authority,  that  they  could  use  nothing  be- 
yond impotent  remonstrances  to  deter  him.     They 
had  recourse  to  their  ally,  who  employed  warm  rep- 
resentations, and  even  threats,  to  make  the  barba- 
rian desist.     But  though  the  latter  admitted  it  to  be 
very  wicked  in  him,  he  declared  that  he  was  perfect- 
ly miserable,  and  could  have  no  peace  till  he  had 
cutoff  the  head  of  an  enemy.     After  this  assurance 
all  arguinent  was  vain,  the  community  not  having 
any  means  of  placing  its  members  under  the  slight- 

*  Champlain,  tome  ii.,  liv.  i.,  ch.  6. 


158 


HISTORY    OF    CANADA 


est  restraint.  He  accompanied  his  countrymen,  and 
shared  in  their  good  reception ;  but  as  they  were 
returning  home,  he  met  one  of  the  detested  tribe, 
and  gratified  his  vengeance  by  despatching  him. 
Such  a  deed,  by  any  member  of  aciviUzed  mission, 
must  at  once  iiave  terminated  all  negotiation;  but 
the  deputies  having  satisfied  the  Iroquois,  who  were 
no  strangers  to  such  sallies,  that  it  was  completely 
an  individual  act,  lamented  by  the  nation,  they  over- 
looked it,  and  sent  six  of  their  number  to  conclude 
the  treaty.* 

In  the  mean  time  the  progress  of  the  colony  was 
still  checked  by  dissensions  in  the  mother  country. 
A  union,  indeed,  was  formed  between  the  old  and 
new  companies,  which  enabled  them  to  proceed 
for  some  time  with  greater  vigour.  But,  though 
united,  they  were  not  ol  one  mind  ;  contentions 
were  soon  kindled,  which  made  Montmorency  com- 
plain, that  he  had  more  trouble  with  this  concern 
than  with  his  most  important  affairs .,  so  that  he 
was  well  pleased,  for  a  moderate  consideration,  to 
transfer  it  to  the  Duke  de  Ventadour.  The  new 
viceroy,  however,  soon  found  himself  involved  in 
serious  troubles.  He  professed,  in  a  manner  pecu- 
liarly decided,  that  his  main  object  was  to  diffuse 
the  Catholic  religion  throughout  the  New  World ; 
but  it  so  happened  that  the  Protestants  were  the 
only  French  citizens  who  possessed  the  nautical 
skill  to  conduct  such  an  expedition,  or  were  willing 
to  brave  its  dangers.  In  despite  of  the  court,  there- 
fore, they  formed  the  majority  of  every  crew  ;  and 
though  the  most  illiberal  restrictions  were  laid  upon 
their  worship,  their  numbers  enabled  them  to  treat 
these  with  little  ceremony.  Even  De  Caen  pro- 
fessed this  faith ;  and  the  new  viceroy  had  the 
affliction  to  learn  that  he  had  not  only  allowed  Prot- 
estant prayers  to  be  publicly  offered  up,  but  even 

*  Champlain,  tome  ii.,  p.  79-89 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  159 

desired  the  Romanists  to  attend  them.  He  was 
restless,  therefore,  till  an  arrangement  could  be 
made  by  which  a  captain  of  sound  belief  should 
be  appointed  to  command  the  vessels.  He  could 
not,  however,  escape  the  fatal  necessity  of  employ- 
ing a  crew,  most  of  whom  were  accounted  hereti- 
cal;  but,  in  return,  he  directed  that  the  means  of 
exercising  their  religion  should  be  confined  within 
the  narrowest  possible  limits.  In  particular,  he 
strictly  enjoined  that  they  should  not  sing  psalms 
in  the  St.  Lawrence  ;  but  the  mariners,  who  had 
freely  performed  this  act  of  worship  in  the  open 
sea,  loudly  exclaimed  against  such  a  capricious 
restriction ;  and  though  the  express  orders  of  the 
duke  could  not  be  departed  from,  a  compromise 
was  made,  allowing  them  greater  latitude  in  other 
parts  of  their  ritual.  Our  author  uniforndy  express- 
es a  pious  horror  touching  the  Reformers,  and  the 
utmost  reluctance  to  grant  them  the  slightest  fa- 
vour;  but  oddly  excuses  himself  by  saying,  "They 
were  almost  two  thirds  Huguenots ;  so  of  a  bad 
debt,  one  must  take  what  payment  he  can  get."* 

Champlain  was  continued  in  all  his  powers  by 
the  Duke  de  Ventadour,  who  kept  him  a  consider- 
able time  near  his  person,  so  that  two  years  and  a 
half  had  elapsed  before  his  return  to  Canada.  He 
found  the  colony  in  the  same  unsatisfactory  state 
as  after  his  former  absence ;  the  fort,  for  comple- 
ting which  all  the  materials  and  full  instructions 
had  been  left,  was  exactly  in  the  same  condition 
as  when  he  departed.  The  settlement  at  Quebec 
consisted  still  of  no  more  than  fifty  five  persons,  of 
whom  twenty-four  only  were  fit  for  labour.f  He 
learned,  moreover,  that  the  Indian  affairs  were  by 
no  means  in  a  good  state.  The  Iroquois,  being  on 
their  way  to  attack  a  tribe  called  the  Wolves,  had 

♦  Champlain,  tome  li.,  p.  41,  94,  103,  104, 133 
+  Ibid.,  tome  ii.,  p.  137,  138 


{60  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

killed  a  party  who  opposed  their  progress,  among 
whom  were  five  of  another  nation.  The  latter 
forthwith  sent  messengers,  bearing  as  gifts  collars 
of  wampum,  to  the  chiefs  of  the  P'rench  allies,  and 
entreating  their  aid  in  a  war  of  revenge.  It  was 
easy  to  kindle  a  hostile  spirit  among  these  fierce 
clans,  and  a  strong  party  was  soon  formed  in  favour 
of  warlike  measures.  The  more  prudent  anxiouslv 
recommended  a  pacific  policy,  and  Mahigan  Aticq 
hastened  to  Quebec,  to  apprize  (yhamplain  of  what 
was  passing.  Deeply  regretting  these  events,  he 
reiterated  all  his  arguments  for  the  preservation  ol 
the  blessings  enjoyed  under  the  present  tranquil 
system.  As  it  was  not  in  his  power  to  go  in  per- 
son, he  sent  Boulle,  his  brother-in-law,  and  after- 
ward one  of  his  people,  named  Emery,  to  impress 
these  views  upon  the  savage  assembly.  They 
were  both  well  received,  and  their  advice  approved 
by  the  great  body  of  the  nation  ;  but  the  lawless 
system  which  still  prevailed  in  the  tribe  made  it 
impossible  to  prevent  nine  or  ten  hot-headed  youths 
from  making  an  unauthorized  inroad  into  the  Iro- 
quois territory.  This  band,  having  reached  Lake 
Champlain,  surprised  a  canoe  with  three  individu- 
als, two  of  whom  they  seized  and  brought  home  in 
triumph.  The  preparations  for  the  work  of  torture 
were  already  going  on,  when  P^jjiery  hastened  to 
convey  the  intelligence  to  Champlain,  who  im- 
mediately repaired  to  the  spot.  The  sight  of  the 
captives,  fine  young  men,  and  of  the  tortures  pre- 
paring for  them,  quickened  his  ardour  in  the  cause 
of  peace  and  humanity.  He  strongly  urged  that, 
instead  of  such  barbarous  treatment,  they  should 
be  sent  home  unhurt,  with  presents  to  compensate 
for  this  wanton  attack.  After  due  deliberation,  this 
advice  was  so  far  adopted  that  one  individual  was 
sent  back,  with  two  allies,  one  of  them  a  chief,  and 
Magnan,  a  Frenchman.  This  expedition,  sent  with 
so  laudable    an    intention,  had   the   most   tragical 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  161 

issue.  An  Algonquin  who  wished  to  foment  war, 
contrived  to  rouse  the  jealousy  of  the  Iroquois  by 
'  persuading  them  that  this  mission,  though  profess- 
ing friendship,  was  devised  with  the  most  treacher- 
ous intent.  Misled  by  these  views,  the  latter  pre- 
pared to  take  cool  and  deliberate  revenge.  When 
the  strangers  arrived,  they  found  the  fire  kindled, 
the  caldron  boiling,  and,  being  courteously  re- 
ceived, were  invited  to  sit  down.  The  Iroquois 
then  asked  the  chief  if,  after  so  long  a  journey,  he 
lid  not  feel  hungry.  As  he  replied  in  the  affirma- 
»ive,  they  rushed  upon  him,  and  began  to  cut  slices 
from  his  arms,  and  throw  them  into  the  pot ;  soon 
after,  they  presented  them  to  him  half  cooked. 
They  then  cut  pieces  from  other  parts  of  his  body, 
and  continued  their  torture  till  he  died  in  lingering 
agonies.  The  Frenchman  was  tormented  to  death 
in  the  usual  manner.  Another  Indian,  more  fortu- 
nate, while  attempting  to  escape,  was  shot  dead  on 
the  spot ;  a  fourth  was  made  prisoner.  When 
news  reached  the  allies  of  this  dreadful  tragedy, 
the  war-cry  was  immediately  sounded,  and  the  re- 
maining captive  was  put  to  death  with  every  re- 
finement of  cruelty.*  Champlain  himself,  though 
deeply  afflicted  by  the  intelligence,  saw  no  longer 
any  possibility  of  averting  hostilities ;  he  felt  that, 
as  a  countryman  had  been  deprived  of  life,  the 
power  of  the  nation  would  be  held  in  contempt  if 
no  resentment  were  shown  at  so  dreadful  an  out- 
ragi  Indeed,  he  experienced  no  little  trouble, 
eve^  among  the  friendly  tribes,  who  immediately 
surrounded  him.  In  several  cases,  Europeans  were 
murdered  in  an  atrocious  manner,  and  under  cir- 
cumstances which  rendered  it  impossible  to  accept 
as  an  explanation  the  assurance  that  parties  of  Iro- 
quois had  penetrated  to  the  spot.  After  overlook- 
ii\g  these  as    much   as   possible,  a   fresh  instance 

•  Champlain  tome ii,  p.  146,  211-214. 


162  HISTORi'    OF    CANADA 

having  occurred,  he  demanded  that  an  individual,  to 
whom  strong  suspicion  attached,  should  be  put  into 
his  hands.  He  detained  him  fourteen  months  ;  but 
being  unable  to  procure  positive  evidence,  and 
pressed  by  other  circumstances  now  to  be  related, 
he  set  him  at  liberty. 

The  dignity  of  the  French  required  that  vigorous 
measures  should  have  been  taken  to  avenge  so 
great  a  wrong ;  but  their  attention  was  soon  called 
to  other  quarters.  Hostilities  having  broken  out 
with  England,  two  of  their  subjects,  David  and 
Louis  Kertk,  Calvinist  refugees,  entered  the  ser- 
vice of  that  country,  where  they  were  known  under 
the  name  of  Kirk.  They  equipped  a  squadron, 
which  sailed  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
captured  several  vessels,  and  intercepted  the  com- 
munication between  the  mother-country  and  the 
colony.  The  settlers,  who  had  not  yet  sufficiently 
extended  cultivation  to  supply  themselves  with 
provisions,  were  thus  reduced  to  the  greatest  dis- 
tress. At  length,  in  July,  1629,  Sir  David  Kirk 
summoned  Quebec.  As,  in  addition  to  famine,  the 
ammunition  was  nearly  exhausted,  the  governor 
considered  himself  as  having  no  choice  but  to  sur- 
render. The  invader,  who  still  retained  many  of 
the  feelings  of  his  birth,  promised  honourable  con- 
ditions, and  every  species  of  good  treatment  to  his 
countrymen.  They  were  allowed  to  depart  with 
their  arms,  clothes,  and  baggage.  The  request  of 
a  ship  to  convey  them  directly  home  could  not  be 
complied  with;  but  they  were  promised  a  commo- 
dious passage  by  way  of  England.  Champlain 
was  desirous  to  take  with  him  two  little  native 
girls  whom  he  had  carefully  educated,  and  although 
at  first  objected  to,  this  was  granted  on  a  fuller  ex- 
planation. The  place  being  surrendered.  Kirk  and 
the  English  showed  to  the  garrison  every  species 
of  courtesy  ;  though  Baillif,  a  renegade  Frenchman 
to  whom  "he  intrusted  the  keys  of  the  magazine. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  163 

seized  a   great   quantity  of  furs,   besides    various 
articles  of  church  property,  and  subjected  his  coun- 

■  trymen  to  all  the  ill  treatment  in  his  power. 

I  Champlain,  who  arrived  at  Dover  on  the  27th  Oc- 
t)ber,  proceeded  thence  to  London  for  the  purpose 
of  conferring  with  the  French  ambassador.  The 
differences  between  the  two  nations  were  now  in  a 
train  of  adjustment ;  but  a  large  party  in  the  Gallic 
cabinet  set  too  little  value  on  the  settlement  to  think 
its  restoration  worth  insisting  upon.  Champlain 
strongly  deprecated  this  view  of  the  subject;  his 
counsels  at  length  prevailed  at  the  court  of  Louis 
Xin.  ;  and  when  the  English  found  the  matter  seri- 
ously pressed,  they  consented  without  much  diffi- 
culty. The  final  treaty,  however,  was  not  signed 
till  the  29th  March,  1632. 

The  indifference  with  which  both  countries  viewed 
this  colony,  though  bearing  the  pompous  title  of 
New  France,  was  not  ill  justified  by  its  actual  con- 
dition. A  fort,  with  some  houses  and  barracks  at 
Quebec  ;  a  few  huts  for  fishing  and  trade  at  Tadous- 
sac,  Trois  Rivieres,  and  Montreal,  formed  nearly 
all  that  answered  to  that  imposing  name.*  But  even 
prior  to  its  late  disaster,  arrangements  had  been 
made  with  a  view  to  rescue  it  from  this  depressed 

'  state.  Under  the  direction  of  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
whose  administration  was  marked  by  a  bold  and 
enterprising  character,  an  association  was  formed  of 
a  hundred  distinguished  individuals,  who  undertook 
that,  by  the  year  1643,  they  would  raise  the  popula- 
tion to  6000.  They  engaged  to  maintain  the  emi- 
grants for  three  years,  bestowing  upon  them  lands 
and  seed-corn.  They  were  also  to  send  a  suitable 
number  of  clergymen,  subsisting  them  for  fifteen 
years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  period  to  assign  them 
glebes  sufficient  for  their  support. f     Their  opera- 

*  Heriot,  History  of  Canada,  8vo,  London,  1804  (translateo 
from  Charlevoix,  Histoire  de  la  Nouvelle  France),  p.  49. 
+  Charlevoix  in  Heriot,  p.  37,  38. 


i64  HISTORY    OP    CANADA 

lions  were  suspended  by  the  disastrous  events  just 
narrated ;  but  when  the  above  treaty  restored  Can- 
ada to  the  French,  their  rights  were  fully  confirmed, 
.  and  they  made  no  hesitation  in  reinvesting  Cham- 
plain  with  his  former  jurisdiction.     The  year  1633 
had   arrived,  however,  before   an    expedition    was 
ready  to  sail,  which  carried  with  it  more  property 
than  was  supposed  at  the  time  to  exist  in  the  colony. 
The  governor  found  most  of  those  whom  he  had 
left ;  but  their  prosperity  must  have  been  greatly 
checked  by  the  bigoted   spirit  which    induced  the 
court  to  prohibit  altogether  the  exercise  of  the  re- 
formed   religion,  by  whose   professors  chiefly  the 
settlement  had  been  supported.     Some  small  com- 
pensation was  aff'orded  by  the  institution  of  religious 
establishments  embracing  objects  of  general  educa- 
tion and  instruction.     A  son  of  the  Marquis  de  Ga- 
mache,  whose  fervour  had  impelled  him  to  join  the 
order  of  Jesuits,  conceived  the  ambition  of  founding 
a  college  at  Quebec,  and  was  enabled  by  his  friends 
to  offer  6000  gold  crowns  for  this  purpose.     His  pro- 
posal was  readily  accepted,  and,  though  delayed  by 
the  misfortunes  of  the  colony,  was  carried  into  ef- 
fect in  1635.     Four  years  later,  under   the   auspi- 
ces of  the  Duchess  d'Aiguillon,  a  party  of  Ursuline 
nuns  were  sent  out,  and  a  seminary  established  by 
them  at  Quebec.     But  the  religious  foundation  from 
which  the  greatest  advantages  were   derived  was 
that  projected  by  the  Abbe  Ulivier,  who  had  origi- 
nated the  order  of  St.  Sulpice,  and  proposed  that  a 
seminary,  bearing  its  name    and    composed  of  its 
members,  should  be  formed  in  New  France.     The 
king    listened    favourably  to  this    suggestion,  and, 
with  a  view  of  realizing  it,  made  a  grant  of  the 
whole  island  of  Montreal.     A  party  was  formed,  the 
Sieur  Maisonneuve  was  placed  at  its  head,  and  in- 
vested with  the  government.     That  important  place, 
where  hitherto  there  had  been  only  a  few  detached 
huts,  assuraerf  now  the  aspect  of  a  regular  settle« 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  165 

ment,  and  rose,  by  gradual  steps,  until  it  attained  a 
great  degree  of  prosperity.* 

But,  in  the  mean  time,  the  rising  colony  was  des- 
tined to  encounter  severe  disasters.  Tiie  death 
of  Charaplain,  early  in  1636,  was  a  severe  blow. 
Though  some  parts  of  liis  early  policy  were  very 
questionable,  his  devotion  to  the  cause,  his  energy 
and  high  reputation,  were  generally  viewed  as  tlie 
chief  bond  by  which  the  whole  undertaking  had  been 
held  together.  The  company,  after  their  first  great 
effort,  soon  relaxed,  and  allowed  the  settlement  to 
relapse  into  a  languishing  state.  They  had  sent, 
indeed,  a  considerable  number  of  monks  and  nuns ; 
but  of  troops  and  stores,  which  were  more  urgently 
wanted,  the  supply  was  very  scanty.  The  situation 
of  M.  de  Montmagny,  the  new  governor,  was  ren- 
dered more  critical  by  the  state  of  the  Indian  nations. 
We  have  already  seen  the  renewal  of  the  war  with 
the  Iroquois  ;  and  as  the  weakness  of  the  French 
had  rendered  it  impossible  for  them  to  afford  any 
aid  to  their  native  allies,  that  warlike  confederacy 
had  advanced  by  rapid  steps  to  a  supremacy  of 
power.  The}'  had  completely  humbled  the  Algon- 
quins,  who  formerly  held  the  foremost  place  in  the 
savage  world;  they  closely  pressed  the  Hurons, 
scarcely  allowing  their  canoes  to  pass  up  and  down 
the  river;  and  they  now  threatened  in  great  force 
the  settlement  of  Trois  Rivieres.  In  this  exigency, 
Montmagny's  resources  enabled  him  only  to  carry 
on  a  defensive  warfare,  which  he  appears  to  have 
done  with  vigour,  erecting  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Sorel.  by  which  the  Iroquois  chiefly  made 
their  descents.  That  fierce  people,  whether  tired 
of  so  long  a  contest  or  awed  by  the  renewed  power 
displayed  by  the  French,  began  to  make  proposals 
for  a  solid  peace  ;  and  though  the  governor  had  good 
reason  to  doubt  their  sincerity  and  dread  some  sin- 

*    Charlevoix  in  Heriot,  p  49-55 
I.— .^ 


166  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

ister  object,  his  situation  left  no  choice  but  to  re- 
ceive them  with  apparent  cordiality.  He  therefore 
repaired  to  Trois  Rivieres  to  meet  their  deputies, 
while  the  chiefs  of  the  tribes  in  alliance  with  him 
came  also  to  the  interview.  The  envoys  of  the  Five 
Nations  then  produced  seventeen  belts,  which  they 
had  arranged  along  a  cord  fastened  between  two 
stakes.  Their  orator  came  forward  and  addressed 
the  governor-general  by  the  title  of  Ononthio,  which, 
in  their  language,  signifies  Great  Mountain ;  and 
though  it  was  in  reference  to  his  name  of  Mont- 
magny,  they  continued  ever  after  to  apply  this  term 
to  the  French  viceroy.  They  often  added  the  re- 
spectful appellation  of  father.  The  speaker  de- 
clared the  sincerity  of  their  intentions,  and  their 
wish  "  to  forget  their  songs  of  war  and  to  resume 
the  voice  of  cheerfulness."  He  then  proceeded  to 
the  exposition  of  the  belts,  which  occupied  three 
hours,  each  explanation  being  accompanied  with 
appropriate  gestures,  which  alone  would  have  been 
almost  sufficieiit  to  unfold  his  meaning.  Thus, 
havnig  occasion  to  refer  to  the  difficulties  of  canoe- 
navigation,  he  performed  all  the  movements  neces- 
sary in  guiding  one  through  the  rapids,  and,  repre- 
senting himself  as  striking  against  a  rock,  used  signs 
expressive  of  the  pain  caust^d  by  such  an  accident. 
These  belts  variously  expressed  the  calming  of  the 
spirit  of  war,  the  opening  of  the  paths,  the  mutual 
visits  to  be  paid,  the  feasts  to  be  given,  the  restitu- 
tion of  the  captives,  and  other  friendly  proceedings. 
The  governor,  in  conformity  to  Indian  etiquette, 
delayed  his  answer  for  two  days,  when,  at  another 
general  meeting,  he  bestowed  as  many  presents  as 
he  had  received  belts,  and  through  an  interpreter 
expressed  the  most  pacific  sentiments.  Piskaret,  a 
great  Algonquin  chief,  then  said,  "  Behold  a  stone, 
which  I  phice  on  the  sepulchre  of  those  who  were 
killed  in  the  war,  that  no  one  may  attempt  to  remove 
their  bones,  and  that  every  desire  of  avenging  their 


DNDEU    THE    FRENCH.  }(')7 

death  may  be  laid  aside."  Three  disch,arges  ol 
cannon  were  considered  as  sealing  the  treaty.  It 
was  for  some  time  faithfully  observed,  and  unwonted 
tranquillity  reigned  throughout  this  savage  region. 
The  Iroquois,  the  Algonquins,  and  Hurons  forgot 
their  deadly  feuds,  and  mingled  in  the  chase  as  if 
they  had  been  one  nation.* 

M.  de  Montmagny,  like  his  predecessor,  appears 
to  have  commanded  the  general  respect  of  the  na- 
tive inhabitants.  Unluckily,  in  consequence  of  an 
attempt  by  De  Poinci,  who  commanded  in  the  West 
Indies,  to  render  himself  independent,  the  court 
adopted  the  jealous  policy  of  continuing  no  govern- 
or in  power  longer  than  three  years.  This  system 
was  peculiarly  ill  suited  to  a  settlement  like  that  of 
Canada,  where  intimate  local  knowledge,  and  a  pe- 
culiar mixture  of  firmness  and  address,  were  neces- 
sary to  deal  with  tumultuary  tribes  whom  they  had 
not  strength  to  subdue.  Montmagny  was  replaced 
by  Ailleboust,  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  probity, 
but  scarcely  possessing  the  energy  required  in  so 
difficult  a  situation.  During  his  government  the  Iro- 
quois formed  the  resolution  of  renewing  the  war  in 
all  its  fury.  No  ground  is  stated  ;  but  the  Europe- 
ans and  their  allies,  in  consequence,  became  exposed 
to  a  series  of  dreadful  calamities. 

The  missionaries  had  not  merely  formed  estab- 
lishments at  Quebec  and  Montreal,  but  had  also  pen- 
etrated into  the  territory  of  the  savages.  In  this 
task  they  certainly  gave  full  proof  of  sincerity,  re- 
nouncing all  the  comforts  of  civilized  life,  and  ex- 
posing themselves  to  every  species  of  hardship  and 
danger.  They  have  been  accused  of  unduly  com- 
bining political  with  religious  objects.  They  did 
certainly  employ  their  influence  for  the  furtherance 
of  French  power,  since  they  induced  a  number  even 
of  the  Iroquois  not  only  to  quit  the  country  to  which 

♦  Charlevoix  in  Heriot,  p.  51-63. 


168  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

they  were  so  strongly  attached  and  settle  withm  the 
limits  of  the  colony,  but  even  to  fight  against  their 
own  relations.  But,  at  the  same  time,  they  un- 
doubtedly reclaimed  their  votaries  from  many  sav- 
Hge  habits,  and  trained  them  to  some  degree  of  or- 
der and  industry.  The  Hurons  were  found  the 
most  docile  and  susceptible  of  improvement,  and 
their  great  numbers  afforded  a  wide  field  of  exer- 
tion. Upward  of  three  thousand  of  them  are  re- 
corded to  have  been  baptized  at  one  time ;  and 
though  it  was  easier  to  make  converts  than  to  re- 
tain them,  yet  a  considerable  change  is  said  to  have 
appeared  in  the  aspect  of  this  wild  region,  and  very 
favourable  prospects  to  have  been  opened.*  The 
main  object  was  to  unite  them  in  villages,  of  which 
the  chief  was  Sillery,  or  St.  Joseph  and  St.  Mary, 
with  several  smaller  dependent  ones. 

In  1648  the  Iroquois,  as  already  stated,  deter 
mined  to  renew  the  war;  a  resolution  adopted  by 
them,  if  we  may  believe  the  annals  of  the  colony, 
without  any  ground,  or  even  pretext.  The  settle- 
ment, however,  was  now  destined  to  experience  the 
terrible  effects  of  their  rapid  movements  ;  that  they 
could  advance  like  foxes  and  attack  like  lions ;  and 
that  their  arrival  and  triumphant  return  were  usu- 
ally announced  at  the  same  moment. f  In  the  vil- 
lage of  Sillery,  where  four  hundred  families  were 
settled  in  the  most  profound  peace,  and  the  mission- 
ary was  celebrating  the  most  solemn  ordinances  of 
religion,  the  cry  was  suddenly  raised,  "  We  are  mur- 
dered !"  An  indiscriminate  massacre  had  begun, 
without  distinction  of  sex  or  age.  In  vain  did  wom- 
en flee  into  the  depth  of  the  forest  with  infants  in 
their  arms,  whose  feeble  cries  betrayed  themselves 
and  their  mothers.     Finally,  the  assailants  fell  upon 

*  Missions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,  ans)  1642,  1643,  p.  32 ;  an 
1647,  p.  19  ;  ans  1649.  1650.  p.  92. 
+  Miissions,  ans  1659,  1660,  p.  17. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  169 

the  priest,  and,  after  each  successively  had  struck 
a  blow,  threw  him  into  the  flames.* 

Notwithstanding  this  dreadful  example,  the  Iro- 
quois having  disap[)eared  for  six  months,  the  villages 
relapsed  into  their  former  security.  This  tranquil- 
lity, however,  was  again  disturbed  in  1649  by  a  party 
of  the  same  people,  amounting  to  a  thousand,  who 
made  an  attack  upon  the  mission  of  St.  Ignace. 
Some  resistance  was  off"ered,  and  ten  assailants  fell ; 
but  ultimately  all  the  inhabitants,  except  three,  were 
killed  or  carried  off.  St.  Louis  was  next  attacked, 
and  made  a  brave  defence,  which,  though  it  was 
finally  stormed,  enabled  many  of  the  women  and 
children  to  escape.  The  missionaries  could  have 
saved  themselves  ;  but,  like  others  of  their  brethren, 
attaching  a  high  importance  to  the  administration 
of  the  sacrament  to  the  dying,  they  sacrificed  their 
lives  to  the  performance  of  this  sacred  rite.  They 
were  not  killed  on  the  spot,  but "  reserved  for  great- 
er crowns,"  having  to  pass  through  a  dreadful  series 
of  torture  and  mutilation. f 

Deep  and  universal  dismay  now  spread  among 
the  Huron  people.  Their  country,  lately  so  peace- 
able and  flourishing,  was  become  a  land  of  horror 
and  of  blood,  a  sepulchre  of  the  dead,  and  no  hope 
appeared  to  the  survivers.  The  whole  nation,  with 
one  consent,  broke  up  and  fled  for  refuge  in  every 
direction.  A  few  reluctantly  offered  to  unite  with 
their  conquerors,  who,  according  to  their  usual  pol- 
icy, readily  accepted  them.  The  greater  number 
sought  an  asylum  among  the  nations  of  the  Cat,  the 
Ottawa,  and  others  still  more  remote.  The  mis- 
sionaries were  greatly  at  a  loss  how  to  proceed  with 
the  remnant  of  their  converts,  now  nearly  reduced 
to  the  single  village  of  St.  Mary.  The  island  of 
Manitoulin,   in   Lake    Huron,  was   proposed ;   but, 

*  Missions  en  la  Novuelle  France,  ans  1648,  1649,  p.  12,  13. 
t  Missions  ans  1648,  1649,  p.  12,  34-39,  c.  iv 


170  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

though  they  wanted  the  means  or  courage  to  defend 
their  country,  they  felt  a  deep  reluctance  to  remove 
to  such  a  distance  from  it.  They  preferred  the  in- 
sular situation  of  St.  Joseph,  in  Lake  Ontario,  which, 
it  was  hoped,  would  secure  them  against  this  dread- 
ed foe.  They  enjoyed  fur  some  time  an  unwonted 
tranquillity,  but  were  obliged,  by  the  difficulty  of 
subsistence,  to  form  stations  on  the  opposite  coast, 
at  the  distance  of  six  or  eight  leagues.  It  was 
hoped  that,  on  any  alarm,  the  inhabitants  might 
thence  flee  to  the  island  for  safety ;  but  the  Iro- 
quois, on  learning  the  existence  of  these  posts,  came 
upon  them  successively,  with  such  suddenness  and 
fatal  precision,  that  it  seemed  as  if  a  destroying  an- 
gel had  guided  their  steps.  One  after  the  other  was 
surprised  and  destroyed,  till  of  many  hundreds  only 
a  single  individual  escaped 

The  unhappy  remnant  of  the  Huron  nation,  now 
reduced  to  300,  renounced  every  hope  of  remaining 
in  their  native  seats.  One  of  their  chiefs  addressed 
the  missionary,  representing  the  extremity  to  which 
they  were  reduced,  being  ghosts  rather  than  meO; 
and  hoping  to  preserve  their  wretched  existence 
only  by  fleeing  into  the  depth  of  the  forests,  or  to 
some  distant  country.  If  he  chose  to  remain  where 
he  was,  he  could  only  have  trees  and  rocks  to  in- 
struct. This  was  the  preface  to  a  solicitation  that 
he  should  convey  them  to  Quebec,  and  place  them 
under  the  immediate  protection  of  the  French  set- 
tlement. After  serious  consideration,  this  was 
deemed  the  most  eligible  course,  and  arrangements 
were  immediately  made  for  its  execution.  They 
were  then  led  through  the  wide  regions  lately  peo- 
pled by  their  countrymen,  to  tlie  number  of  ten  or 
twelve  thousand,  but  which  now  presented  a  scene 
of  unbroken  silence  and  desolation.  The  sombre 
aspect  of  ihe  vast  forest  was  only  interrupted  by 
the  traces  of  havoc  and  slaughter  at  every  spot 
formerly  inhabited,  attesting  the  general  destruction 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  171 

of  the  Huron  name.  Overwhelmed  with  distress, 
they  reached  Quebec,  where  they  experienced  a 
mortifying  contrast  to  the  reception  which  they 
would  have  found  among  any  neighbouring  tribe  of 
savages.  There  they  would  have  had  every  want 
supplied,  and  been  welcomed  as  countrymen  and 
equals.  Here  they  were  viewed  only  as  objects  of 
charity ;  and  though  in  this  light  considerable  exer- 
tions were  made,  the  religious  houses  finding  room 
for  a  hundred  of  the  most  destitute,  yet  the  remain- 
der were  in  danger  of  perishing  from  cold  and  hun- 
ger, till  a  station  could  be  formed  for  them,  which, 
from  their  former  chief  settlement,  was  named  Sil- 
lery.* 

As  the  Iroquois  now  lorded  it  completely  over 
Canada,  the  French  were  virtually  blockaded  in  the 
three  forts  of  Quebec,  Trois  Rivieres,  and  Montreal, 
from  under  the  very  cannon  of  which  they  and  their 
allies  were  sometimes  carried  off;  and,  almost  every 
autumn,  bands  of  hostile  invaders  swept  away  the 
limited  harvests  raised  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
*.hese  places.  Yet  in  1G53  this  fierce  nation  began, 
of  their  own  accord,  to  make  overtures  of  peace ; 
and  it  was  found  with  surprise  that  the  missionaries 
had  powerfully  contributed  to  this  resolution.  They 
had  been  regarded  at  first  with  extreme  antipathy, 
being  probably  considered  as  enemies  of  their  race, 
seeking  to  subvert  the  native  deities  and  customs. 
In  the  course  of  the  late  inroads,  however,  a  con- 
siderable number  had  been  carried  off,  and  after  suf- 
fering protracted  torture  and  partial  mutilation,  had 
been  spared  and  adopted.  Then  their  meek  deport- 
ment, their  solemn  ceremonies,  and  the  fervour 
with  which  "  they  raised  to  God  hands  without  fin- 
gers," made  a  strong  impression  on  the  savage 
breast.  Hence,  at  different  times,  deputies  from 
the  ruling  horde  said,  in  their  figurative  language, 

♦  Missions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,  ans  1649,  1650,  p.  83-88. 
100. 


172  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

that  they  came  to  wipe  away  the  blood  which  had 
reddened  the  mountains,  the  lakes,  and  the  rivers,  to 
bring  back  the  sun,  which  had  hid  his  face  during  the 
late  dreadful  scenes  of  warfare.  They  solicited,  at 
the  same  time,  "  black-robes,"  as  they  termed  thp 
missionaries,  to  teach  them  the  Christian  doctrine 
The  invitation  to  go  into  the  midst  of  ferocious  en- 
emies, into  a  land  yet  smoking  with  European  blood, 
would  have  shaken  the  nerves  of  most  men.  Yet 
individuals  were  found  who,  with  a  generous  self- 
devotion,  did  not  slirink  from  the  undertaking;  nor 
does  it  appear  that  the  implied  pledge  of  safety  was 
violated  even  during  war.*  The  Onondagoes,  in 
1656,  went  so  far  as  to  solicit  that  a  settlement  con- 
nected with  a  mission  should  be  formed  in  their  ter- 
ritory ;  and  Lauson,  then  governor,  having  acceded 
to  this  proposal,  sent  the  Sieur  Dupuys,  with  fifty 
of  his  countrymen,  who  built  a  church  in  the  bosom 
of  that  savage  region.  This  establishment,  howev- 
er, was  generally  disapproved  by  the  other  tribes  ; 
and  after  it  had  subsisted  two  years,  formidable  as- 
semblages took  place,  which  Dupuys  could  not 
doubt  were  intended  to  attack  him.  He  therefore 
considered  himself  fortunate  in  being  able,  while 
their  attention  was  attracted  to  a  great  feast  given 
for  that  purpose  by  a  friendly  Indian,  to  embark  his 
troops  and  convey  them  to  Montreal.! 

The  French  felt  themselves  too  weak  to  reject 
proposals  for  peace,  though  often  made  with  morti- 
fying haughtiness.  The  Viscount  d'Argenson,  who 
went  out  in  1658,  considered  it  necessary  to  accept 
their  terms,  especially  as  the  utmost  cruelties  were 
otherwise  threatened  to  the  captives.  Yet  even  by 
these  means  his  countrymen  scarcely  obtained  any 
degree  of  the  expected  repose.  This  disappointment 
arose  either  from  deliberate  treachery,  or  the  impos- 

*  Missions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,  ans  lfi55,  1656,  p.  18-20; 
ans  16G0,  1661,  p.  33-40. 

t  Cbarleroix  in  Heriot,  p  74,  81-86. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  173 

sibiliiy  of  confining  in  one  course  the  various  unruly 
elements  of  which  the  confederacy  consisted.     ThtJ 

.  most  amicable  professions  hardly  procured  a  respite 
from  hiistility  ;  for  while  one  party  treated,  another 
attacked:  "  JPeace,  it  is  said,  is  proclaimed  at  Mon- 
treal, while  war  rages  at  Trois  Rivieres;  we  are 
daily  attacked  and  murdered  by  those  who  call 
themselves  our  friends."  At  length,  in  1663,  it  was 
announced  that  a  grand  deputation  was  coming  from 
all  the  cantons,  with  the  professed  intention  to  unite 
the  whole  earth,  and  to  bury  the  hatchet  so  deep 
that  it  might  never  again  be  dug  up ;  and  they 
brought  with  them  a  hundred  collars  of  wampum. 
Unhappily,  a  party  of  Algonquins,  stung  by  accumu- 
lated wrongs,  determined  to  violate  even  the  sacred 
character  of  such  a  mission  ;  and  having  formed  an 
ambuscade,  they  surprised  and  killed  the  greater 
part  of  them.  All  prospects  of  peace  were  thus 
blasted,  and  the  war  raged  with  greater  fury  than 
ever.* 

The  Iroquois,  during  this  period,  continually  ex- 
tended their  dominion.  Having  seen  the  powerful 
effect  of  firearms,  they  procured  them  from  the 
Dutch  at  Manhalti,  and  thus  acquired  an  additional 
superiority  over  the  neighbouring  tribes.     They  at- 

'  tacked  the  Ottawas,  on  account  of  the  shelter  af- 
forded to  their  fugitive  enemies.  That  people  did 
not  make  even  an  attempt  at  resistance,  but  sought 
reluge  amid  marshes  or  in  the  islands  on  Lake  Hu- 
ron, while  others  penetrated  far  southwest  into  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi,  where  they  formed  a  junc- 
tion with  the  Sioux.  On  the  same  ground  the  Iro- 
quois commenced  a  desperate  war  with  the  nation 
of  the  Eriez,  a  name  in  their  language  signifying 
Cats.  After  a  somewhat  hard  struggle,  they  com- 
pletely succeeded  ;  seven  hundred  of  them  stormed 
the  main  fortress  of  the  enemy,  though  defended  by 

"  Missions  en  la  Nouvelle  France,  ans  1660,  1661  p.  12-26; 
ans  166?.  1664,  p.  160,  &c.     Heriot,  p.  87,  94,  95. 

I.— o 


174  HISTORif    OF    CANADA 

2000  men ;  and  the  survivers  were  either  incorpo. 
rated  with  the  victors,  or  fled  into  remoter  regions. 
This  once-powerful  nation  has  left  no  memorial  of 
its  existence  except  the  great  lake  which  bears  its 
name.  It  is  reckoned  that  the  conquerors  held  un- 
disputed sway  over  a  country  five  hundred  miles  in 
circuit.  The  very  sight  of  one  of  them  struck  ter- 
ror into  the  neighbouring  tribes ;  and  on  the  side  of 
New-England,  the  cry  of  "A  Mohawk!"  echoed 
from  hill  to  hill,  causing  general  consternation  and 
flight.* 

Amid  this  series  of  disastrous  events,  the  French 
governors,  whether  from  weakness  or  pusillanimity, 
beheld  the  destruction  of  their  allies  and  the  com- 
plete ascendency  of  this  hostile  power,  without  any 
attempt  to  prevent  either.     They  did  not  even  go 
to  war,  but  thought  it  enough  to  keep  the  colonists 
shut  up  in  fortified  posts,  which  the  enemy  had  not 
skill  to  besiege  ;  and  nothing  else  prevented  them 
from  speedily  destroying  these  settlements,  the  en- 
virons of  which  they  daily  assaulted.     They  even 
made  a  descent  upon  the  Isle  of  Orleans,  where 
they  surprised  a  party  of  ninety  Hurons ;  and  having 
killed  six,  bound  the  rest,  and  made  them  sing  in 
front  of  Quebec,  thus  openly  defying  the  governor. 
M.  Maisonneuve,  apprehensive  for  Montreal,  and 
unable  otherwise  to  procure  aid,  repaired  to  France, 
where,  by  earnest  solicitation,  he  obtained  a  re-en- 
forcement of  a  hundred  men.     The  Hurons,  under 
European  protection,  in  a  moment  of  despondency, 
had  made  an  offer  of  uniting  themselves  to  the  Iro- 
quois, which,  as  usual,  was  readily  accepted  ;  but 
the  former  soon  repented.     That  proud  nation  then 
sent  thirty  deputies  to  remonstrate,  not  only  with 
them,  but  with  the  governor-general,  M.  de  Lauson. 
To  him  they  said,  "  Lift  up  thy  arm,  Ononthio,  and 
allow  thy  children,  whom  thou  boldest  pressed  to 

*  Heriot,  p.  73-77.    Missions,  ans  1659, 1660,  p.  33-35.    Col 
len's  History  of  the  Five  Nations,  vol.  L,  p.  3, 4, 


UNDER    THE    FIUONCH.  175 

thy  bosom,  to  depart ;  for  if  they  are  guilty  of  any 
imprudence,  thou  hast  reason  to  fear,  that,  in  coming 
to  chastise  them,  my  blows  fall  on  thy  head." 
They  even  demanded  canoes  to  convey  these  re- 
luctant associates.  Lausoii,  instead  of  resenting 
this  haughty  address,  caused  them  to  be  informed, 
that  if  the  Hurons  were  inclined  to  go,  he  would 
not  oppose  their  departure ;  that  he  had  no  canoes, 
but  they  might  construct  as  many  as  they  wanted. 
After  this,  considering  that  no  option  was  left  them, 
except  to  which  of  the  five  nations  they  should 
unite  themselves,  the  greater  part,  in  consequence, 
left  the  island.* 

Amid  these  external  evils,  the  colony  was  farther 
visited  by  a  terrible  convulsion  of  nature.  A  suc- 
cession of  earthquakes,  which  commenced  on  the 
5th  of  February,  1663,  were  felt  for  half  a  year  with 
little  intermission  throughout  all  Canada,  recurring 
two  or  three  times  every  day,  agitating  both  the 
earth  and  the  waters,  and  spreading  universal  alarm  ; 
yet,  as  they  did  not  inflict  any  permanent  injury,  nor 
cause  the  loss  of  a  single  life,  the  accounts  given  of 
them  are  probably  much  exaggerated.! 

Meantime  the  most  urgent  representations  were 
made  to  Louis  XIV.  that  his  government  was  totally 
neglecting  one  of  the  finest  countries  in  the  world, 
and  exposing  the  French  name  to  contempt,  by  al- 
lowing it  to  be  trampled  upon  by  a  handful  of  sav- 
ages. That  prince,  who  had  recently  assumed  the 
reins  of  power,  being  eagerly  bent  upon  every 
means  of  aggrandizement,  was  not  likely  to  over- 
look one  so  considerable.  He  was  seconded  by  his 
minister  Colbert,  who  had  specially  devoted  his 
thoughts  to  the  extension  of  commerce;  and  it  was 
therefore  immediately  resolved  to  take  steps  for 
raising  Canada  to  her  due  importance.     Four  hun- 

•  Heriot,  p.  73,  75,  78-82. 

t  Ibid.,  p.  99-102.     Missions,  an  1663,  p.  17,  la 


176  HISTORY    or    CANADA 

dred  troops  were  ordered  thither  ;  and  M.  de  Monts 
was  appointed  commissioner  to  examine  into  and 
regulate  the  different  branches  of  administration. 
The  governor  had  hitherto  exercised  in  person,  and 
without  control,  hU  its  functions  ;  but  there  was  now 
united  witli  liiin  acouncdof  royal  appointment,  and 
an  inteiidant,  to  whom  were  intrusted  the  weighty 
concerns  of  justice,  police,  finance,  and  marine. 

This  new  system  did  not  at  first  work  altogether 
smoothly,  nor  did  the  independent  materials  of 
which  it  was  composed  well  harmonize.  M.  de 
Mesy.  the  governor,  after  having  sent  back  to  France 
two  of  the  principal  members  of  council,  was  him- 
self recalled.  The  court,  however,  persevered  in 
its  determination  to  raise  the  new  colony  to  a  prop- 
er rank.  Tiie  associates,  who  had  so  long  neglected 
it,  and  were  unwilling  to  inv(dve  themselves  in  a 
large  outlay  with  uncertain  returns,  resigned  their 
privileges  into  theh^ndsof  the  crown  ;  and  govern- 
ment, according  to  tlie  unvarying  system  of  that 
age,  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  the  West  India  Com- 
pany, though  it  retained  for  some  time  the  adminis- 
tration of  its  affairs.* 

In  pursuance  of  these  views,  the  Marquis  de  Tracy 
was  sent  out  in  1605  under  the  joint  character  of 
viceroy  and  lieutenant-general,  and  thus  invested 
with  uncontrolled  power.  Along  with  him,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  former  deiachm^-nt,  was  despatched  the 
entire  regiment  of  Carignan  Salieres,  for  some  time 
employed  in  Hungary  against  the  Turks,  where  il 
had  acquired  a  high  reputation.  A  considerable 
number  of  settlers,  including  artisans,  with  horses 
and  cattle,  formed  an  accession  to  the  colony  ex- 
ceeding the  amount  of  its  actual  meddlers. 

The  new  \'iceroy  lost  no  time  in  taking  measures 
for  checking  \\]^'  insolence  of  the  Iroquois,  and  es- 
tablishing a  supreniary  over  these  proud  savages. 

*   C'iAarlr'Vijix  in  Henol,  p  97,  103-112. 


UNDKB    THE    FRRNCFI.  ]  77 

He  began  by  erecting  throe  forts  on  the  river  Rich- 
elieu, in  a  situation  titled  to  cover  the  French  terri- 
tory from  their  incursions.  Overawed  by  these 
movements,  and  by  the  report  of  his  large  force, 
tltree  of  the  cantons  sent  deputies,  with  ample  pro- 
fessions of  friendship,  proposing  an  excliange  of  all 
tlie  prisoners  taken  on  both  sides  since  the  last  trea- 
ty. Tlie  viceroy  was  pleased  with  their  deport- 
ment, and  agreed  to  the  terms.  The  fierce  Oneidas 
and  Mohawks,  however,  still  kept  aloof;  and  a  party 
of  the  latter  even  killed  three  officers,  one  of  whom, 
De  Chasy,  was  nephew  to  the  viceroy.  But  as  two 
corps  were  advancing  into  their  territory,  an  envoy 
from  each  nation  soon  appeared  at  Quebec,  profess- 
ing to  negotiate  for  peace.  They  were  well  re- 
ceived, and  invited  to  the  governor's  table,  when  the 
conversation  happening  to  fall  on  De  Chasy's  death, 
the  Mohawk,  in  a  paroxysm  of  savage  pride,  lifted 
his  arm,  saying,  *'  With  this  hand  that  young  officer 
was  slain."  Tracy,  in  a  transport  of  rage,  told  him 
he  should  never  live  to  kill  another  Frenchman,  and 
ordered  him  to  be  immediately  strangled,  while  the 
other  deputy  was  detained  a  prisoner.* 

This  event  put  an  end  to  all  pacific  overtures. 
De  Courcelles  had  already  begun  his  march  into 
the  Mohawk  dominions  ;  but  as  it  was  the  depth  of 
winter,  the  excessive  cold,  together  with  the  wary 
conduct  adopted  by  the  enemy,  prevented  him  from 
effecting  much.  On  his  return  he  found  the  vice- 
roy ready  to  take  the  field,  with  an  expedition  on  a 
greater  scale,  in  which  600  of  the  Carignan  regi- 
ment vere  employed.  He  detained,  without  listen- 
ing to  them,  two  new  ambassadors,  and,  notwith- 
standing his  advanced  age,  resolved  to  command 
in  person.  In  spite  of  eve-y  precaution,  the  Indians 
had  received  notice  of  his  approach,  and,  abandon- 
ing their  villages,  they  left  hiin  to  march  through  a 

♦  Herot,  p.  lU'-llfi. 


178  HISTOaV    OF    CANADA 

desolate  country.  He  found,  however,  an  abun- 
dance of  grain  buried  near  their  deserted  abodes, 
which  enabled  him  to  subsist  his  troops  till  he 
reached  the  extreme  frontier,  where  he  found  the 
Indians  assembled  on  a  spot  whither  they  had  not 
expected  him  to  penetrate.  On  discovering  the 
French  they  attempted  no  resistance,  but  fled  with 
precij  if  ition  into  still  more  remote  and  less  acces- 
sible retreats ;  and  as  the  viceroy  could  not  attempt 
to  occupy  this  extensive  territory,  he  found  it  neces- 
sary to  return,  without  striking  any  decisive  blow. 

Though  this  expedition  had  not  fully  answered 
its  object,  yet  the  awe  which  it  inspired,  added  to 
the  protection  of  the  forts,  secured  the  colony  in  a 
great  degree  from  the  inroads  of  these  fierce  ma- 
rauders. It  enjoyed  a  long  tranquillity,  and  began 
even  to  assume  a  flourishing  and  cultivated  appear- 
ance. Most  of  the  regiment  of  Carignan,  both  offi- 
cers and  soldiers,  settled  in  the  country,  where  they 
received  liberal  grants  of  land.  As  many  of  the 
former  belonged  to  families  of  rank,  they  rendered 
society  more  polished  than  was  usual  in  transat- 
lantic communities,  though  they  introduced  the  feu- 
dal laws  and  usages  at  that  time  common  in  Europe. 
Considerable  inconvenience  having  arisen  from  the 
scattered  manner  in  which  a  great  part  of  the  lands 
had  been  brought  into  cultivation,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  concentrate  them  ;  but  the  amount  of  la- 
bour and  property  already  invested  rendered  this  to 
a  great  extent  impracticable.* 

M.  de  Courcelles,  who  succeeded  Tracy  in  1667, 
if:  accused  of  some  faults  in  the  internal  adminis- 
tration ;  but  in  his  conduct  towards  the  Indians, 
which  formed  the  most  important  and  difficult 
branch,  he  displayed  a  happy  union  of  firmness  and 
address.  He  even  succeeded,  though  not  without 
difficulty  and  some  indignation  on  their  part,  in  pre- 

•  Her.ot,  p.  120-125. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  179 

venting  his  savage  allies  from  engaging  in  war 
against  the  Iroquois.  He  availed  himself  of  this 
auspicious  interval  to  extend  the  power  of  France 
to  the  interidr  of  Canada  and  the  upper  parts  of  the 
!St.  Lawrence.  Two  Jesuits,  Perrot  and  Marquette, 
were  employed  to  survey  those  districts.  The  lat- 
ter induced  a  large  body  of  the  Hurons  to  settle  at 
Micliillimackinac,  on  an  island  in  the  river,  between 
the  great  lakes  Huron  and  Michigan,  a  situation 
very  favourable  for  the  fur-trade.  Agreeably  to  the 
reports  transmitted  to  him,  the  governor  fixed  upon 
Cataraqui,  on  Lake  Ontario,  near  the  present  site  of 
Kingston,  as  an  advantageous  point  both  for  the 
protection  of  the  trade  and  for  holding  the  Five 
Nations  in  awe.  He  visited  the  spot,  and  having 
procured  a  meeting  of  the  savage  chiefs,  obtained 
their  consent  to  the  measure,  carefully  concealing, 
of  course,  the  most  important  object  comtemplated 
in  its  erection. 

Courcelles  had  requested  his  recall ;  and  on  his 
return  to  Quebec  in  1672,  found  his  place  supphed 
by  Louis,  count  de  Frontenac,  who  was  destined 
to  act  a  most  important  part  in  the  history  of  Can- 
ada. He  was  able,  enterprising,  active,  and  ambi- 
tious, but  proud,  overbearing,  and  subject  to  capri- 
cious jealousies  and  enmities.  He  entered,  how- 
ever, cordially  into  the  views  of  his  predecessor  in 
regard  to  the  fort  at  Cataraqui,  which  he  imme- 
diately caused  to  be  established  ;  and  it  has  often 
from  him  been  called  Fort  Frontenac.  At  the  same 
time  he  set  on  foot,  or  actively  promoted,  vast  pro- 
jects for  exploring  the  interior  regions  of  America.* 

Although  this  leader  conducted  the  affairs  of  the 
colony  with  spirit  and  energy,  his  domineering  tem- 
per could  not  brook  the  checks  by  which  a  jealous 
court  sought  to  limit  his  jurisdiction.  It  was  en- 
joined that  all  affairs  of  importance  should  be  deci* 

*  Heriot,  p.  123-140. 


180  HISTORY    OP    CANADA 

ded  in  a  council  composed  of  himself,  the  bishop, 
and  the  intendant,  each  with  an  equal  vote.  The 
prelate  was  supported  by  a  numerous  body  of  cler- 
gy, many  of  whom  were  connected  with  powerful 
families  at  home,  and  were  accused  of  wishing  to 
obtain  the  supreme  direction  of  affairs.  Their  influ- 
ence was  laudably  exerted  in  opposing  the  sale  of 
spirits  to  the  savages,  which  produced  most  perni- 
cious effects,  but  which  the  count  considered  as  at 
once  extremely  profitable,  and  a  means  of  attach- 
ing them  to  the  French  interest.  Tlie  government, 
on  carefully  considering  the  opposite  statements, 
decided  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  clergy,  and 
strictly  prohibited  the  traffic.  But  the  count  had 
still  more  violent  dissensions  with  the  intendant, 
M.  Chesneau,  who  was  not  only  a  member  of  the 
council,  but  authorized  to  act  as  its  president ;  and 
being  considered  a  man  of  mild  temper,  the  chief 
blame  was  thrown  on  the  governor.  As  it  was 
found  impossible  for  them  to  act  together,  the  court 
determined  to  recall  both ;  and  M.  de  la  Barre,  ac- 
cordingly, in  1682,  was  sent  out  as  the  new  vice- 
roy.* 

Canada  was  then  in  a  critical  situation,  which 
rendered  it  ill  able  to  sustain  the  want  of  a  vigor- 
ous administration.  The  fine  territory  on  the  Hud- 
son, at  first  occupied  by  the  Dutch  under  the  title 
of  New  Belgium,  was  subsequently  claimed,  and, 
after  several  contests,  secured  by  the  English,  who 
named  it  New-York.  Here,  according  to  European 
ideas,  they  held  the  Iroquois  country  as  included 
within  their  dominion ;  and  though  this  pretension 
could  not  be  yet  declared,  they  endeavoured  with 
success  to  court  that  people,  and'  alienate  them  from 
the  French.  Their  merchants,  carrying  on  a  free 
trade,  while  that  of  their  rivals  was  fettered  by  an 
exclusive  company,  dealt  with  the  tribes  on  more 

*    Heriot,  p.  14C-149,  160,  161. 


UNDER    TUE    FRENCH.  181 

advantageous  terms.  The  Iroquois,  therefore,  found 
it  their  interest,  not  only  to  curry  all  their  furs  to 
the  English  market,  but  to  buy  up  those  of  the  sav- 
ages in  alliance  with  France.  Heavy  complaints 
were  made  by  that  power  ;  but  the  Indians,  assured 
of  British  support,  treated  them  with  great  indifl'er- 
ence  ;  and  that  shrewd  race  soon  discovered,  in  the 
eager  competition  between  these  two  Kuropeaa 
nations,  the  means  of  rendering  their  own  position 
more  secure  and  imposing.  The  military  strength 
of  the  colony,  too,  was  greatly  reduced  ;  the  troops 
who  had  gone  out  with  De  Tracy,  having  had  lands 
assigned  to  them,  were  become  proprietors  and  cul- 
tivators rather  than  soldiers  ;  and  though  they  held 
their  tenures  on  the  condition  of  military  service, 
they  could  not  be  called  out  without  interrupting  the 
agriculture  of  the  country,  and  endangering  its  sub- 
sistence. 

M.  de  la  Barre,  however,  determined  upon  war; 
and,  having  obtained  a  re-enforceruent  of  200  men, 
advanced  up  the  river.  He  was  met  at  Montreal  by 
deputies  from  the  cantons,  who  made  strong  profes- 
sions of  friendship;  but  these  he  considered  vague 
and  unworthy  of  credit,  and  was  confirmed  in  this 
opinion  when,  soon  after,  a  party  of  fourteen  of  his 
counytrmen  were  attacked  and  plundered.*  He  en- 
deavoured, however,  to  divide  the  strength  of  these 
fierce  tribes,  by  sending  belts  of  peace  to  three  of 
them,  and  directing  all  his  force  against  the  Senecus, 
whom  he  considered  the  most  hostile,  and  also,  we 
suspect,  because  it  was  through  their  territory  that 
the  English  penetrated  to  the  fur-trade  on  the  lakes. 
The  hope  was  quite  illusory  in  regard  to  the  mem- 
bers of  so  politic  a  confederation.  In  proceeding 
upward,  he  received  notice  that  deputies  from  the 
other  tribes  were  coming  to  medi^ite  a  peace  be- 
tween him  and  their  neighbours ;  that,  in  case  of 

»    Heriot,  p.  163-168,  1  14,  175. 


182  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

refusal,   they  were  determined  to  make  common 
cause  with  them;  and,  in  the  event  of  this  alter- 
native, they  had  received  ample  assurances  of  sup- 
port from  New-York.    The  diificulties  of  the  French 
commander  were   greatly   increased   by   sickness, 
which,  in  consequence  of  the  bad  quality  of  the 
provisions,  had  broken  out  in  his  army.     Yet  when 
the   deputies  met  him    on   the  northern  shore   of 
Lake  Ontario,  he  assumed  a  lofty  tone.     He  com- 
plained of  their  inroads  into  the  country  of  the  Illi- 
nois and  other  tribes  in  alliance  with   France ;  of 
their  outrages  against  the  traders  of  that  nation ; 
and  particularly  of  their  having  conducted  the  Eng- 
lish to  the  lakes,  and  enabled  them  to  supplant  the 
commerce  of  his  countrymen.     He  concluded  by 
stating  that,  unless  reparation  were  made  for  these 
injuries,  with  a  promise  to  abstain  from  them  in  fu- 
ture, war  and  the  devastation  of  their  country  must 
be  the  immediate  consequence.     The  deputies  very 
coolly  replied,  that  Ononthio  appeared  to  speak  like 
one  in  a  dream ;   and   that,  if  he  would  open  his 
eyes,  he  would  see  himself  wholly  destitute  of  the 
means  to  execute  these  formidable  threats.     They 
defended  their  right  to  make  war  upon  any  Indian 
nations   by  whom   they  conceived  themselves  ag- 
grieved ;  adding  that  the  French  party  were  attack- 
ed by  them  because  they  were  conveying  arms  to 
their  enemies.     As  to  the  English,  they  had  allow- 
ed them  to  pass  through  their  lands,  on  the  same 
principle  that  they  had  given  permission  to  his  peo- 
ple,   and    would    continue   to   do  so.     They  were 
afraid  lest  the  great  number  of  the  warriors  here 
present,  if  they  proceeded  to  Cataraqui,  should  tram- 
ple down  the  tree  of  peace  there  so  happily  plant- 
ed.    They  were  still  willing  to  dance  the  calumet- 
dance  under  the  shadow  of  its  branches,  and  to 
leave  the  hatchet  buried,  unless  the  country  grant- 
ed to  them  by  the  (ireat  Spirit  should  be  attacked. 
The  Onondago  deputies  guarantied  reparation  for 


UNDER    THK     FRENCH.  183 

any  actual  plunder  intlicted  on  French  traders,  but 
added  that  no  more  could  be  conceded,  and  that  the 
army  must  be  immediately  withdrawn.  However 
lunniliating  these  terms  were,  after  such  lofty  threats 
and  preparations,  De  la  Barre  had  no  choice  but  to 
comply.*  The  English,  on  the  other  hand,  reproach- 
ed the  Iroquois  for  not  having  prosecuted  the  war, 
and  in  terms  which  seemed  to  indicate  a  right  to 
direct  their  movements.  They  replied,  however, 
in  the  same  determined  manner  :  "'  Ononthio,"  said 
they,  "  is  our  father,  and  Corlaer  (as  they  called 
the  governor  of  New- York)  our  brother;  but  nei- 
ther of  them  is  our  master.  He  who  created  the 
world  gave  us  the  land  which  we  occupy ;  we  are 
free ;  we  respect  both ;  but  neither  has  a  right  to 
command  us ;  and  no  person  ought  to  take  offence 
that  we  prevent  the  earth  from  being  troubled."  On 
another  occasion,  they  said  "  Brother  Corlaer,  we 
tell  you  that  we  shall  bind  a  covenant  chain  to  our 
arm  and  to  his  as  thick  as  that  post."+  We  cannot 
forbear  remarking,  that  in  this  whole  transaction 
the  savages  appear  to  great  advantage  compared 
both  with  their  European  allies  and  enemies. 

De  la  Barre,  on  arriving  at  Quebec,  received  de- 
spatches which  placed  him  greatly  at  fault.  A  fresh 
-  re-enforcement  had  been  landed,  and  the  letters 
-.  from  court  intimated  the  full  expectation  that  he 
was  carrying  on  a  triumphant  war  with  the  Five  Na- 
tions. On  this  supposition,  the  king  made  an  ab- 
surd and  cruel  request,  that  he  would  send  a  num- 
ber of  Iroquois  prisoners  to  man  his  galleys.  We 
may  then  imagine  the  dissatisfaction  felt  at  home 
when  the  real  issue  of  the  campaign  was  reported. 
The  governor  was  immediately  pronounced  unfit  for 
his  situation,  and  was  superseded  in  1685  by  the 
Marquis  de  Denonville,  distingushed  as  a  brave  and 
active  officer. 

*  Heriot,  p.  170-189. 

+  Ibifi.,  p,  179-180.    Golden,  vol.  L,  p.  66. 


184  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

This  commander,  on  his  arrival,  made  some  pro- 
fessions of  a  wish  to  maintain  peace,  though  he 
r  must  have  understood  that  a  quite  opposite  course 
was  really  expected  of  him.  After  giving  what  he 
professed  to  consider  a  fair  trial,  he  soon  dec  ared 
his  conviction  that  the  Iroquois  could  never  be  con- 
ciliated, and  that  it  was  a  matter  of  political  neces- 
sity either  to  extirpate  or  reduce  them  to  entire  de- 
pendence. He  proposed  also  to  erect  a  strong  fort 
at  Niagara,  both  to  hold  them  in  check  and  also  to 
prevent  their  introducing  the  English  to  the  fur-trade 
on  the  lakes.  He  opened  his  campaign  with  a 
measure  the  most  iniquitous  and  unjustifiable  that 
can  well  be  conceived.  Having,  under  various  pre- 
texts, allured  a  number  of  chiefs  to  meet  him  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Ontario,  he  suddenly  put  them  in 
irons,  and  sent  Ihem  off  to  France,  to  fulfil  the  king's 
absurd  scheme  with  regard  to  the  manning  of  hia 
galleys.  He  had  not  scrupled  to  employ  two  mis- 
sionaries in  this  base  stratagem  ;  but  the  Indians,  be- 
lieving them  to  be  unconscious  instruments  of  the 
crime,  generously  spared  them  both.* 

There  could  now  be  nothing  on  either  side  but 
war  to  the  utmost  extremity.  Denonville  was  fully 
prepared  for  it,  and  had  800  French  regulars,  with 
1300  Canadians  and  savages,  ready  to  advance  into 
the  Seneca  country,  with  the  resolution,  it  is  said, 
of  putting  all  to  the  sword.  On  approaching  the 
first  village,  they  were  suddenly  attacked  in  front 
and  rear  by  800  of  the  enemy,  and  it  was  most  mor- 
tifying to  the  French  to  find  themselves  thrown  into 
a  good  deal  of  confusion,  and  to  set.  the  battle  re- 
trieved by  their  undisciplined  allies.  The  Iroquois, 
being  repulsed,  did  not  again  make  their  appearance 
in  the  field.  The  conqueror  marched  for  ten  days 
through  vast  woods,  burning  and  destroying  the 
grain  and  provisions,  but  not  meeting  a  single  ene- 

♦  Heriot,  p.  190-194,  208,  20a 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  185 

my.  A  doubt  respecting  the  fidelity  of  his  allies, 
and,  as  we  suspect,  the  exhavisted  state  of  his  gen- 
eral equipment,  then  induced  him  to  retire.  He 
carried  into  execution,  however,  his  plan  of  erect- 
ing and  garrisoning  a  fort  at  Niagara. 

Notwithstanding  the  semblance  of  success  in  this 
expedition,  it  appeared,  on  the  retreat  of  the  inva- 
ders, that  the  Iroquois  were  complete  masters  of 
the  upper  course  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  They  block- 
aded the  two  forts  of  Niagara  and  Cataraqui,  the 
former  of  which  they  reduced  and  razed  to  the 
ground.  They  covered  Lake  Ontario  with  their  ca- 
noes. The  native  allies  of  the  French,  seeing  no 
prospect  of  assistance  from  them,  began  to  waver; 
nor  is  it  doubted  that,  if  the  savages  had  understood 
the  art  of  siege,  they  would  have  rooted  the  Euro- 
peans entirely  out  of  Canada.  As  it  was,  they  de- 
termined on  the  course  which,  it  must  be  owned, 
they  had  often  shown  themselves  very  ready  to  em- 
brace, of  making  proposals  of  peace.  Deputies  ar- 
rived at  Montreal,  leaving  at  two  days'  march  be- 
hind a  corps  of  1200  of  their  countrymen,  ready  for 
immediate  action.  They  boasted  to  the  governor 
of  their  commanding  position,  and,  insisting  upon 
the  restoration  of  the  chiefs  unjustly  seized  and  of 
all  other  captives,  allowed  him  only  four  days  to 
accept  the  offer,  otherwise  the  whole  country  would 
be  in  flames.  The  deepest  consternation  prevailed 
at  Montreal;  and  Denonville  saw  himself  under  the^ 
necessity  of  accepting  these  humiliating  terms,  and' 
requesting  back  from  France  the  chiefs  whom  iie 
had  iniquitously  sent  thither.* 

This  treaty  was  interrupted  by  an  unexpected  act 
of  treachery.  The  Hurons  had  entered  into  the  war 
on  the  full  understanding  that  it  should  not  terminate 
till  the  Iroquois  were  destroyed  or  completely  hum- 

♦  Heriot,  p.  212-219.  Golden,  p.  93.  La  Potherie,  vol.  jL, 
p.  207,  208, 


186  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

bled.  They  dreaded  now  that  they  might  be  left 
defenceless,  and  have  to  sustain  the  attacks  of  that 
potent  tribe ;  an  issue  which  their  principal  chief, 
the  Rat,  took  a  most  savage  means  of  averting. 
Having  learned  that  a  body  of  their  deputies  were 
to  land  at  the  cascades  of  the  St.  Lawrence  on  their 
way  to  Montreal,  he  and  a  party  of  his  countrymen 
lay  in  ambush,  and  killed  or  captured  them  as  they 
successively  disembarked.  He  then  informed  the 
prisoners  that  this  crime  had  been  committed  at  the 
mstigation  of  the  governor,  who  had  even  practised 
a  deception  to  induce  him  to  commit  it,  and  pre- 
tending to  be  shocked  at  the  treachery  into  which 
he  had  been  seduced,  he  sent  them  home.  It  is 
easy  to  conceive  the  indignation  of  the  cantons  at 
this  intelligence  ;  and  though  Denonville  disavowed, 
in  the  strongest  terms,  the  allegations  of  the  Rat, 
the  flame  once  kindled  could  not  be  fully  quenched. 
The  Hurons  were  also  encouraged  by  the  hope  of 
gaining  over  the  allies  of  the  French,  who,  seeing 
that  people  no  longer  able  to  protect  them,  were  all 
disposed  to  make  terms  with  the  party  which  now 
appeared  the  strongest.  The  Iroquois  made  a  sud- 
den descent  on  the  island  of  Montreal,  which  they 
laid  waste  with  fire  and  sword,  carrying  off  200 
prisoners,  without  having  experienced  any  resist- 
ance. The  fort  at  Cataraqui,  like  that  at  Niagara, 
was  blown  up  and  abandoned. 

In  this  extremity,  when  the  very  existence  of  the 
colony  was  threatened,  it  was  judged  indispensable 
to  place  at  its  head  an  officer  possessing  energy  of 
character,  and  address  in  dealing  with  the  savages. 
These  qualities  were  united  in  the  Count  de  Fron- 
tenac,  who,  during  his  former  administration,  had 
made  himself  both  beloved  and  feared  by  all  those 
nations ;  and  experience,  it  was  hoped,  would  teach 
him  to  avoid  the  errors  which  had  led  to  his  recall. 
The  count  took  out  with  him  the  captive  chiefs 
whom  his  predecessor  had  so  unjustly  seized ;  and 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  187 

SO  fascinating  were  his  manners,  that  lie  completely 
gained  their  favour;  Oiireouhaiu,  the  principal  one, 
remaining  ever  after  most  strongly  attached  to  him. 

Frontenac,  on  his  arrival  in  1689,  endeavoured  to 
open  a  negotiation  with  the  Iroquois,  whom  he  en- 
tertained sanguine  hopes  of  conciliating.  By  the 
advice  of  Oureouhar^,  he  sent  a  deputy  of  that  na- 
tion whom  he  found  at  Montreal,  with  four  of  his 
captive  countrymen,  to  announce  to  the  cantons  his 
return,  and  his  wish  to  resume  amicable  relations. 
The  friendly  chief  transmitted  a  message,  requesting 
them  to  send  an  embassy  to  their  ancient  father, 
from  whom  they  would  experience  much  tenderness 
and  esteem,  and  wliom  he  would  not  quit  till  the 
affair  was  satisfactorily  adjusted. 

The  council  of  the  Iroquois,  after  some  dehbera- 
tion,  sent  back  the  same  deputies  with  six  belts, 
intimating  their  resolution.  It  was  expressed  in 
lofty  and  even  imbittered  terms.  Choosing  to  con- 
sider Ononthio  as  always  one  and  the  same,  they 
complained  that  his  rods  of  correction  had  been  too 
sharp  and  cutting.  The  roots  of  the  tree  of  peace 
which  he  had  planted  at  Fort  Frontenac  had  been 
withered  by  blood ;  the  ground  had  been  polluted 
with  treachery  and  falsehood.  They  demanded 
atonement  for  these  injuries,  and  that  Oureouhare, 
with  his  captive  companions,  should  be  sent  back 
previous  to  the  liberation  of  the  French  prisoners. 
Ononthio  would  then  be  at  liberty  to  plant  again 
the  "  tree  of  peace,  but  not  on  the  same  spot."  This 
answer  was  regarded  by  Frontenac  as  very  unsatis- 
factory ;  yet  anxious  to  keep  open  the  negotiation, 
he  sent  an  officer  with  eight  belts  from  Oureouhare, 
importing  that  they  should  detach  themselves  from 
the  F^nghsh  and  Dutch,  and  unite  in  close  alliance 
with  France.  Till  then  that  chief  declined  returning 
to  his  canton.* 

*  Heriot,  p.  220-236. 


188  HISI     RY    OF    CANADA 

Two  circumstances  imboldened  the  Iroquois  to 
assume  this  high  tone.  In  consequence  of  the  rev- 
olution of  1688,  when  the  cause  of  Jamess  11.  was 
embraced  by  the  French  monarch,  the  two  king- 
doms were  now  at  open  war;  and  the  P'lve  Nations 
could  depend  upon  the  cordial  co-operation  both  of 
the  EngUsh  and  the  Dutch.  At  the  same  time,  they 
were  engaged  in  a  treaty  with  the  Ottawas  and  other 
tribes,  who,  besides  being  anxious  to  have  a  better 
market  for  their  furs,  complained  that  the  alliance 
of  the  French  was  only  a  burden  to  tliem,  as  they 
found  it  necessary  to  protect  them  instead  of  enjoy- 
ing their  protection.  In  this  crisis,  the  count  feel- 
ing a  strong  inducement  to  do  something  to  retrieve 
the  reputation  of  his  country,  resolved  to  strike  the 
first  blow  against  the  English,  on  whose  support  the 
enemy  so  strongly  relied.  An  expedition  was  fitted 
out  at  Quebec  in  1690  against  Corlaer  or  Schenec- 
tady, the  frontier  town  of  New-York,  and  from 
which  the  Indians  gave  the  name  to  the  governor. 
This  party,  composed  of  110  French  and  a  number 
of  savages,  succeeded  completely  in  surprising  the 
place.  They  found  the  gates  open,  and  encountered 
resistance  only  at  one  point,  where  it  was  soon 
overcome.  The  fort  and  every  house  were  pillaged 
and  burned.  The  English  accounts  add,  that  all  the 
horrors  of  Indian  warfare  were  let  loose  on  the  de- 
fenceless inhabitants  ;  that  sixty-three  men,  women, 
and  children  were  massacred  in  cold  blood,  and  a 
small  remnant  carried  away  as  prisoners.  The 
victors,  on  their  return,  suffered  severely  from  want 
of  food,  being  obliged  to  kill  almost  all  their  horses. 
The  Iroquois  were  not  intimidated  nor  estramred 
from  the  English  by  this  catastrophe ;  on  the  con- 
trary, they  sent  to  the  survivers  a  number  of  belts, 
importing  that  they  felt  and  would  avenge  the  wrong 
as  if  done  to  themselves.  Not  a  man  in  Canada 
should  dare  to  go  out  to  cut  a  stick.  "  We  are," 
s^id  they,  "  of  the  race  of  the  bear,  and  a  bear,  you 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  189 

know,  never  yields  while  a  drop  of  his  blood  is  left." 
One  belt,  importing  eyewater  to  make  their  sight 
sharp,  delicately  intimated  the  necessity  of  greater 
precaution  hi  future.  Others  were  to  wipe  away 
their  tears,  and  assure  them  that  "  the  sun,  which 
had  been  cloudy  and  sent  this  disaster,  would  shine 
again  with  his  pleasant  beams."* 

Meantime,  a  smaller  expedition  from  Trois  Ri- 
vieres succeeded  in  surprising  and  destroying  an 
English  village  named  Sementels.  The  count  also 
sent  M.  de  Louvigny,  with  a  large  detachment,  to 
strengthen  the  remote  post  of  Michillimackinac, 
which  had  been  maintained  with  great  difficulty. 
This  service  was  effected,  and  a  party  of  the  enemy, 
who  attempted  to  surprise  them,  were  completely 
defeated.  Notwithstanding  this  success,  the  Iro- 
quois maintained  the  same  active  hostility ;  but  a 
favourable  inilutnice  was  produced  on  the  old  allies 
of  the  French,  who,  seeing  ihem  resume  their  former 
energy,  determined  to  prefer  their  support  to  that 
of  new  and  suspicious  friends.  The  Ottawas  owned 
that  they  had  made  some  progress  in  a  negotiation, 
but  as  soon  as  they  heard  of  the  return  of  their  an- 
cient  father,  had  determined  to  break  it  off.  The 
Hurons,  who  had  not  taken  such  open  steps,  denied 
having  ever  entered  into  any  treaty.* 

Meantime  a  storm  was  ready  to  burst,  which 
threatened  the  very  existence  of  French  power  in 
America.  The  English  determined  to  strike  a  blow, 
which  might  at  once  deprive  the  enemy  of  all  his 
possessions.  Two  expeditions  were  prepared,  one 
by  sea  from  Boston  agninst  Quebec,  the  other  by- 
land  from  New- York  against  Montreal.  The  first 
WSLA  commanded  by  Sir  William  Phipps,  a  native  of 
New-England,  of  humble  birth,  who  had  raised  him- 
self by  his  talents  to  a  high  station.  Having  sailed 
with  thirty-four  vessels  of  different  sizes,  and  a  large 

»  Heriot,  p.  237-242.     Golden,  vol.  i.,  p,  120-125. 
+  Heriut,  p.  243-248,  249,  250. 

I.— P 


190  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

body  of  troops,  he  proceeded  with  such  activity  that 
he  had  captured  all  the  posts  in  Acadia  and  New- 
foundland, with  several  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
was  within  a  few  days'  sail  of  Quebec  before  the 
alarm  spread  ihither.  Frontenac,  who  was  at  Mon- 
treal, hastened  down  to  strengthen  the  defences, 
which  at  that  time  consisted,  in  a  great  measure,  of 
rude  intrenchments  of  timber  and  earth.  On  the 
morning  of  the  16th  October,  1690,  the  fleet  appear- 
ed in  view,  and  an  officer  came  with  a  summons, 
which  was  peremptorily  rejected.  Sir  William  took, 
no  active  measures  till  midday  on  the  18th,  a  re- 
missness which  was  much  blamed.  He  then  landed 
1500  men  on  the  banks  of  the  river  St.  Charles. 
The  French  could  muster  only  300  irregulars ;  but 
these,  posting  themselves  among  rocks  and  bushes, 
with  which  the  marshy  gromid  was  covered,  kept 
up  a  constant  fire  that  caused  great  loss  to  their  en- 
emy. Before  night,  however,  they  retreated  into 
the  town,  leaving  the  assailants  masters  of  the  field. 
In  the  evening  the  large  vessels  anchored  in  front 
of  the  city  and  opened  a  brisk  fire ;  but,  being  di- 
rected against  the  upper  part,  it  produced  little  ef- 
fect. It  was  renewed  on  the  following  day,  and 
continued  till  noon,  but  was  equally  fruitless,  while 
the  ships  sustained  considerable  damage.  The 
squadron  was  then  moved  up  the  river,  beyond  Cape 
Diamond.  On  the  same  day,  the  troops  continued 
to  advance,  though  slowly,  and  harassed  by  constant 
attacks.  Pliipps,  whose  only  hope  was  now  from 
land-batteries,  sent  on  shore  six  pieces  of  ordnance, 
and  next  day  endeavoured  again  to  push  forward 
with  his  men.  The  militia,  however,  with  increased 
numbers  and  activity,  harassed  them,  and  at  length, 
covered  by  some  palisades,  kept  up  so  brisk  a  fire 
as  to  arrest  their  progress.  The  English  command- 
er, at  this  stage  considering  the  enterprise  hopeless, 
embarked  the  soldiers  on  the  2-2d,  submitting,  at  the 
same  time,  to  the  mortifying  necessity  of  leaving 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  191 

his  cannon  and  ammunition.  Golden  considers  it 
certain,  that,  had  he  at  once  made  a  vigorous  attack 
on  the  body  of  the  place,  he  would  have  easily  car- 
ried it.  The  F'rench,  he  says,  returned  fervent 
thanks  to  Providence  for  having,  by  a  special  inter- 
position, deprived  their  enemies  of  common  sense.* 

The  expedition  against  Montreal  did  not  take 
place  at  the  appointed  time,  ownig  to  a  want  o*" 
concert  between  the  parties.  Next  year,  however 
(1691),  after  some  desultory  ravages  by  the  Iroquois, 
news  arrived  that  they,  with  their  English  and  na- 
tive allies,  were  advancing  along  the  river  Sorel. 
The  command  at  Montreal  was  then  held  by  De 
Callieres,  a  very  able  officer,  who  had  gained  the 
respect  and  attachment  of  his  savage  neighbours. 
It  is  said  that,  on  this  and  other  high  occasions,  he 
danced  with  them  the  war-dance,  brandishing  the 
hatchet,  shouting  and  hallooing  in  their  national 
manner.  In  addition  to  his  countrymen,  he  had  as- 
sembled about  800  Indians  at  the  Prairie  de  la 
Magdeleine,  near  the  town.  Still  the  Iroquois,  by 
their  rapid  movements  and  skill  in  ambuscade,  suc- 
ceeded in  surprising  several  of  the  advanced  posts, 
and  carrying  off  a  considerable  number  of  prisoners. 
But  when  the  force  on  both  sides  was  fully  mus- 
tered, the  assailants,  though  after  a  very  hard  con- 
test, were  obliged  to  retreat. 

After  these  successes,  the  governor  felt  himself 
in  a  very  commanding  position,  and  no  longer  enter- 
tained any  fear  for  the  safety  of  the  colony.  Yet  the 
Iroquois,  under  a  favourite  chief  named  the  Black 
Caldron,  continued  to  make  sudden  inroads  in  every 
direction,  rendering  seedtime  and  harvest  alike  pre- 
carious, and  exposing  every  one  who  stirred  out  of 
the  forts  to  the  hazurd  of  losing  his  life.  It  was 
their  boast,  that  tlieir  enemies  should  have  no  rest 
except  in  the  grave.     In  this  desultory  contest  the 

♦  Heriot,  p.  255-262.     Golden,  vd..  i.,  p.  137,  138. 


192  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

advantage  was  usually  on  their  side;  and,  though  a 
detachment  penetrated  into  the  canton  of  the  Mo- 
hawks, they  were  obliged  to  return  without  gaining 
any  decisive  advantage.* 

The  Iroquois,  however,  in  the  beginning  of  lfi94, 
began  to  show  a  disposition  towards  peace.  Two 
Onondagoes  came  to  Montreal,  and  asked  De  Cal- 
lieres  if  certain  deputies  who  were  on  their  way 
would  be  received.  They  were  answered  in  the 
affirmative ;  yet  two  months  elapsed  before  they 
availed  themselves  of  this  concession.  In  March 
there  came  only  an  apology  from  the  chief,  who 
was  to  have  been  at  the  head  of  the  embassy,  and 
who  threw  the  blame  of  the  delay  upon  the  English. 
A  dark  suspicion  was  now  entertained,  that  these 
missions  were  contrived  with  a  most  treacherous  de- 
sign ;  to  stab  the  governor  and  M.  de  Callieres  in  pub- 
lic council,  while  a  large  body  concealed  in  ambush 
should  take  advantage  of  the  confusion.  Nothing 
ever  occurred  that  could  seem  to  justify  this  horrid 
apprehension,  so  little  consistent  with  the  cold  and 
lardy  maiuier  in  which  the  proposals  were  made. 
The  truth  appears  to  be,  that  two  parties  divided 
the  councils  of  the  savages.  One,  supported  by  the 
English,  and  relying  on  their  promises,  eagerly 
urged  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  But  the  other, 
seconded  by  the  "  praying  Indians,"  or  the  converts 
made  by  the  missionaries,  represented  that  the  na- 
tion was  wasting  itself  in  a  fruitless  warfare  ;  that 
the  British  made  large  promises,  and  put  them  on 
bold  enterprises,  but  did  nothing  to  support  them; 
that,  in  short,  they  were  lavish  of  Indian  blood,  but 
sparing  of  their  own.  A  vacillating  policy  resulted 
from  this  conflict.  However,  in  May,  the  chief  ar- 
rived with  eight  deputies,  and  was  well  received  by 
the  governor,  notwithstanding  his  w:int  of  confi- 
dence.    This  was  the  season  of  bOwing,  during  the 

♦  Heriot,  p.  265-27*-   QoUlen,  vol.  i.,  p.  139-142. 


tNDKR    TIIR    FRENCH.  193 

continuance  of  which  a  truce  was  extremely  con- 
venient. They  expressed  the  most  friendly  dispo 
sition,  and  even  soUciied  the  restoration  of  the  fort 
of  Cataraqui  ;  a  request  which  Frontenac  little  ex- 
pected, but  was  quite  disposed  to  grant.  Oureou- 
hare  went  with  these  deputies,  and  returned  in 
company  with  others,  bringing  also  thirteen  French- 
men, several  of  whom  were  persons  of  distinction, 
who  had  been  long  held  in  captivity.  They  came, 
however,  only  from  two  cantons  ;  and  though  the 
first  belt,  relating  to  the  prisoners,  was  conceived 
in  friendly  terms,  the  exposition  of  the  others  was 
obscure  and  unsatisfactory ;  and  all  attempt  to  ob- 
tain a  proper  explanation  proved  fruitless.  It  trans- 
pired, however,  that  the  Eiighsh  interest  was  pow- 
erfully exerted  against  peace ;  and  all  that  was  at 
present  contemplated  was  "  to  suspend  the  hatch- 
et." The  count,  though  courteously,  rejected  all 
the  belts  except  the  first,  declaring  that  he  wished 
to  chastise  them  only  as  a  father  does  his  children ; 
but  that,  unless  more  friendly  sentiments  were  en- 
tertained, he  could  not  long  withhold  the  intended 
blow.* 

Affairs  continued  for  some  time  in  this  uncertain 
state,  the  enemy  making  repeated  proposals,  to 
which  little  credit  was  attached ;  while  the  govern- 
or, not  having  yet  sufficient  force  to  open  the  cam- 
paign in  an  imposing  manner  against  a  people  who 
could  muster  3000  warriors,  was  not  unwilling  to 
have  a  pretext  for  delay.  Instead,  however,  of 
showing  a  more  friendly  temper,  the  deputies  be- 
gan to  assume  a  loftier  tone,  demanding  that  he 
should  send  envoys  to  their  villages,  and  should 
cease  at  once  all  hostilities  against  them  and  the 
English.  It  was  also  understood  that  various  at- 
tempts were  made  on  their  part  to  detach  the  aU 
Ues,  not  without  some  prospect  of  success.    The 

■•  Heriot,  p.  28^-288. 


194  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

count,  therefore,  considered  it  indispensable  to  pro- 
ceed to  some  measure  which  might  impress  the  sav- 
ages with  an  adequate  idea  of  his  power.     The  pre- 
vaihng  opinion  was,  that  he  ought  at  once  to  march 
his  whole  force  into  the  heart  of  their  territory  ;  but 
he  preferred  sending,  in  the  first  instance,  an  expe- 
dition to  re-establish  the  fort  of  Cataraqui.     This 
service  was  effected  with  promptitude,  and  almost 
without  opposition.     It  did  not,  however,  stop  the 
tendency  to  defection  among  his  confederates,  who 
loudly  complained  of  the  disadvantageous  terms  on 
which  the  French  traders  dealt  with  them,  when 
compared    with    those    obtained  from   the   British 
through  the  Five  Nations.     The  lead  was  taken  by 
a  Huron  chief,  named  the  Baron,  who  concluded  a 
treaty,  not  only  comprehending  his  own  adherents, 
but  even  embracing  the  Ottawas  :  all  of  whom  prom- 
ised  to   desert  the   French,  and   unite  with   their 
mortal  enemies.     Yet  La  Motte  Cadillac,  command- 
er at  Michillimackinac,  by  impressing  on  them  with 
great  address  a  dread  of  his  sovereign's  power,  con- 
trived to  change  the  resolution  of  these  fickle  tribes. 
They  were  even  guilty  of  a  counter-treachery,  at- 
tacking a  party  of  the   Iroquois  who  had  joined 
Uiem,  and  defeating  them  with  great  loss.*     These 
'jroceedings,  however,  were  felt  by  the  governor  as 
strongly  calling  for  some  vigorous  step  to  restore 
he  reputation  of  his  arms;  and  this  could  only  be 
effected  by  carrying  war  on  a  great  scale  into  the 
enemy's  country.     As  this  resolution,  however,  was 
formed  in  the  autumn,  its  execution  was  delayed  till 
the  following  summer,  De  Callieres  being  convinced 
that  the  army  could  not,  without  much  suffering, 
march  amid  frost  and  snow  into  those  desolate  re- 
gions.    He  listened  to  a  plan  for  sending  a  detach- 
ment during  the  winter  into  the  canton  of  the  Mo- 
hawks •  but  it  was  soon  understood  that,  through 

♦  Heriot,  p.  289,  291-298,  305-308 


THE  DEATH  OF   IV OLE 


tNDER    THE    FRENCH.  195 

the  aid  of  the  English,  they  had  placed  themselves 
beyond  the  hazard  of  being  overwhelmed  by  any 
sudden  attack.  An  attempt  to  surprise  hunting- 
parlies,  who  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence  in  spring, 
was  attended  with  only  partial  success. 

It  was  not  till  the  month  of  June,  1696,  that  oper- 
ations could  be  regularly  commenced.  At  that 
period  all  the  forces  which  could  be  mustered, 
regulars,  militia,  and  Indians,  were  marched  upon 
Cataraqui,  and  thence  into  the  canton  of  Onondago. 
Great  difficulty  was  found  in  conveying  the  army 
and  baggage  in  batteaux  along  rapid  streams ;  and 
on  one  occasion  the  greater  part  had  nearly  been 
carried  down  an  impetuous  waterfall.  On  entering 
a  lake,  they  discovered,  suspended  to  a  tree,  two 
bundles  of  rushes,  which  intimated  that  1434  war- 
riors were  waiting  to  engage  them.  They  there- 
fore sailed  across,  and  formed  themselves  in  regu- 
lar  order  of  battle.  A  fort  was  constructed  to  serve 
as  a  magazine  and  place  of  retreat,  and  the  troops 
then  cautiously  began  their  march  into  the  heart  of 
those  savage  regions.  De  Callieres  commanded 
the  left  wing ;  the  Chevalier  de  Vaudreuil  the 
right  :  while  the  count,  then  seventy-six  years 
of  age,  was  carried  in  the  centre  in  an  elbow-chair. 
The  host  of  the  Five  Nations,  however,  did  not  ap- 
pear; and,  on  reaching  their  principal  fortress,  it 
was  found  reduced  to  ashes,  while  two  Frenchmen, 
long  detained  there,  had  been  recently  massacred. 
This  excited  surprise,  as  the  fort  had  been  care- 
fully constructed  by  the  English,  in  a  regular  form, 
with  a  double  palisade,  and  strengthened  by  bastions 
and  redoubts.  It  soon,  however,  became  evident, 
that  the  cantons  had  determined  to  adopt  the  same 
policy  as  on  former  occasions,  of  allowing  the 
enemy  to  march  unresisted  through  their  territory, 
satisfied  that  they  woidd  never  be  able  to  form  any 
permanent  establishment.  Several  prisoners  esca- 
ped ;  but  the  invaders  could  only  overtake  one  In 


196  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

aian,  nearly  a  hundred  years  old,  who  was  barbar 
ously  given  up  to  the  allied  savages  to  be  tortured 
It  was  a  dreadful  spectacle  to  see  more  than  four 
hundred  men  venting  their  rage  on  this  venerable 
and  infirm  warrior,  who  endured  all  they  could  in- 
flict upon  him  with  unshaken  fortitude,  deriding  his 
adversaries  as  slaves  to  a  contemptible  race  of  for- 
eigners.* 

After  the  Onondago  canton  had  been  thus  over- 
run, the  Oneidas  sent  deputies ;  but  Fronlenac, 
under  present  circumstances,  would  accept  nothing 
short  of  unconditional  submission.  De  Vaudreuil 
marched  into  their  territory  and  laid  it  waste.  It 
had  been  determined  in  council  to  advance,  and 
treat  the  Cayugas  in  a  similar  manner;  but  the 
count,  influenced  probably  by  the  exhausted  state 
of  his  armament,  resolved  upon  returning  to  Mon- 
treal. This  conduct  is  much  censured  by  the 
French  writers,  who  consider  that  operations  might 
have  been  carried  further  with  great  advantage. 
English  authors,  on  the  contrary,  consider  the 
whole  expedition  as  an  act  of  heroic  folly,  by 
which  nothing  was  effected  except  the  destruc 
tion  of  some  grain  and  wooden  cabins.  The  Iro- 
^quois  presently  rallied,  and  harassed  the  invader* 
severely  in  their  retreat ;  nor  did  they  afterw^-d 
cease  their  incursions  into  the  settlement  till  they 
found  the  frontier  so  strongly  guarded  that  they 
could  not  carry  ofTany  important  plunder.f 

The  governor,  meanwhile,  had  a  difficult  nego- 
tiation with  his  own  court,  who  had  been  persua- 
ded that  the  advanced  posts  maintained  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  colony  were  of  very  little  ad- 
vantage, while  they  chiefly  caused  the  desolating 
wars  in  which  it  had  been  involved.  The  traffic 
Ihither,  mi  fact,  was  carried  on  very  irregularly  by 

♦  Heriot,  p.  309-321.     La  Potherie,  vol.  lii.,  p.  207,  208. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  322-327.    Colden.  vol  i.,  p.  197,  202. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  197 

an  adventurous  but  desperate  race,  called  the  cou 
reurs  du  bois — rangers  of  the  forest.  It  was,  besides, 
a  strict  monopoly,  being  only  allowed  under  licen- 
ses granted  to  old  otiicers  or  favourites,  who  sold 
them  for  about  600  crowns  each  to  the  merchants. 
The  purchasers  fitted  out  the  coureurs  with  canoes 
and  merchandise,  reaping  profits  so  ample  that  the 
value  of  8000  crowns  was  procured  for  French 
goods  worth  only  a  thousand.  The  savages,  by 
their  intercourse  with  the  English,  learning  the 
extent  to  which  they  were  cheated,  made  inces- 
sant complaints;  and  it  was  therefore  proposed  to 
allow  them  to  bring  their  own  furs  and  dispose 
of  them  at  Montreal,  while  the  colonists  should 
devote  all  their  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
soil.  But  the  governor  and  other  members  of  the 
administration  argued  that  this  step  would  throw 
the  Indian  allies  entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Five 
Nations  and  the  British ;  adding  that,  while  the  fur- 
trade  would  be  entirely  lost,  a  general  confederacy 
of  the  tribes  against  France  might  be  also  dreaded. 
They  were  probably  influenced  by  the  fear  of  sac- 
rificing their  own  power  and  patronage  ;  and  they 
contrived  so  to  modify  the  injunctions  from  court, 
that  they  produced  little  practical  effect.* 

The  Iroquois  continued  the  war  with  vigour,  but 
both  they  and  the  Eiigiisii  met  with  repeated  disas- 
ters, which  made  them  wish  for  peace.  The  Black 
Caldron  himself,  in  a  hunting  expedition,  was 
surprised  and  killed  by  a  party  of  Algonquins. 
Negotiations  were  opened  through  Oureouhare 
whose  sudden  death  again  retarded  them ;  but  their 
success  was  secured  by  tidings  that  peace  had  been 
coni^luded  in  Eiirnpe  between  France  and  Britain. 
The  colonists  of  the  latter  power,  who  first  receiv- 
ed the  intelligence,  sent  a  deputation  to  Quebec 
to  propose  an  exchange  of  prisoners,  both  as  re- 

*  Heriot,  p.  200.201,  334-336. 


198  HISTORY    OF    CANADA. 

spected  themselves  and  their  allies.  The  count, 
however,  preferred  to  negotiate  separately  with 
the  cantons,  and  he  soon  had  the  satisfaction  to 
discover  that,  notwithstanding  the  alliance  which 
had  S3  long  united  them  to  the  English,  a  deep 
jealousy  was  now  felt  lest  that  people,  when  no 
longer  obliged  to  court  their  aid,  should  endeavour 
to  enforce  certain  claims  of  sovereignty.  He  stu- 
diously cherished  this  impression,  hoping  to  im- 
prove it  into  a  friendship  with  his  own  countrymen. 
But  in  the  midst  of  these  transactions  he  died,  on 
the  29lh  November,  1698,  leaving  a  high  reputation 
for  the  energetic  measures  by  which,  with  little 
aid  from  the  mother  country,  he  had  retrieved  the 
affairs  of  the  settlement,  and  raised  it  into  a  power- 
ful and  flourishing  state.  He  was  disinterested, 
but  ambitious,  hnughty,  and  jealous  of  his  authori- 
ty ;  qualities  which  created  him  many  enemies, 
and  considerably  obstructed  his  designs.* 

De  Callieres,  who  had  already  distinguished  him- 
self by  important  services,  was  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor, and  administered  affairs  in  a  manner  which 
gave  entire  satisfaction.  With  more  steadiness  and 
prudence  than  the  count,  he  possessed  nearly  equal 
vigour  and  address.  Much  time  and  many  difficul- 
ties, however,  still  intervened  before  all  matters 
could  be  finally  adjusted  with  the  Iroquois,  and  be- 
tween them  and  the  allies;  but  at  length,  in  1700, 
a  pacification  was  effected,  and  the  numerous  pris- 
oners on  both  sides  were  allowed  to  return.  On 
this  occasion  there  was  witnessed  a  surprising  and 
somewhat  mortifying  occurrence  ;  for,  while  the 
natives  eagerly  sought  their  homes,  the  greater  part 
of  the  French  captives  were  found  to  have  contract- 
ed such  an  attachment  to  the  wild  freedom  of  the 
woods,  that  neither  the  commands  of  the  king,  nor 
the  tears  and  entreaties  of  their  friends,  could  induce 

»  Heriot,  p.  337-345 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH. 

them  to  quit,  the  savage  associates  with  whom  they 
had  united. 

After  peace  had  been  thus  estabhshed  with  their 
enemies,  the  French  were  involved  in  a  contest 
with  their  alUes.  Bourgmont,  governor  of  Detroit, 
had  endeavoured  to  unite  the  Ottawas  witii  the 
Miamis  in  an  expedition  into  the  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent; but  animosities  had  been  for  some  time  fer- 
menting between  these  tribes,  aggravated  by  some 
imprudent  and  vioknit  actions  on  his  part.  At 
length  the  former,  instigated  by  a  leading  chief 
named  "  the  Heavy,"  commenced  an  attack  upon 
the  latter,  whom  they  pursued  under  the  cannon  of 
the  fort.  The  guns  being  opened  upon  them,  a  con- 
test ensued,  in  which  two  Frenchmen,  one  of  whom 
was  a  priest,  were  killed.  The  assailants  then  re- 
tired, and  an  old  chief  came  to  the  governor  to  make 
the  most  humble  apologies  for  this  outrage,  descri- 
bing it  as  a  monKnilary  ebullition,  for  which  they 
could  not  theinselves  account.  The  European 
leader  promised  pardon,  provided  the  savage,  who 
had  instigated  them  to  this  violence,  were  delivered 
up.  To  this  step  they  showed  the  most  extreme 
reluctance,  even  pretending  that  it  was  out  of  their 
power;  but,  as  the  condition  was  held  indispensable, 
they  at  length  produced  the  offender,  though  with 
the  most  earnest  entreaties  for  his  pardon.  This 
was  granted,  though  rather  imprudently;  for  the 
Miamis,  who  had  considered  themselves  fully  enti- 
tled to  his  head,  raised  a  violent  commotion,  which 
it  required  some  force  to  put  down.* 

Scarcely  had  peace  been  thus  concluded  among 
the  savage  tribes,  with  some  hope  of  duration,  when 
it  was  broken  by  their  civilized  neighbours.  The 
succession  of  Philip  of  Anjou  to  the  throne  of  Spain 
gave  rise  to  a  long  and  eventful  contest  between 
France  and  England.     It  was  begun  by  Louis  XIV. 

*  Heriot.  o.  346,  362,  374-377,  380-384. 


200  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

In  the  height  of  his  power,  and  with  every  prospect 
of  giving  law  to  all  Europe ;  instead  of  which,  the 
exploits  of  Marlborough  and  Eugene,  the  fields  of 
Blenheim  and  Kamillies,  reduced  him  to  the  lowest 
condition,  and  at  one  time  even  seemed  to  place  his 
crown  in  peril.  In  these  disastrous  circumstances, 
the  mother  country  was  obliged  to  leave  her  colo- 
nies to  their  own  resources  ;  while  England,  elated 
with  repeated  triumphs,  conceived  the  bold  design 
of  embracing  within  her  territory  the  whole  north 
of  America.  The  situation  of  Canada  was  rendered 
still  more  critical  by  the  death  of  De  Callieres,  her 
able  governor,  which  took  place  in  May,  1703,  though 
hj  was  succeeded  by  ihe  Count  de  Vaudreuil,  who 
proved  himself  by  no  means  destitute  of  the  quali- 
ies  requisite  for  his  high  office. 

The  English  now  culled  upon  their  allies  of  the 
Five  Nations  to  renew  hostilities  against  their  old 
enemies  ;  but  these  tribes  were  exceedingly  unwill- 
ing to  interrupt  their  repose.  They  alleged  that, 
when  they  concluded  a  treaty,  they  did  so  with  an 
intention  to  keep  it;  while  the  Europeans  seemed 
to  enter  into  such  engagements  solely  with  the  view 
of  immediately  breaking  them.  One  chief,  with  the 
rude  freedom  of  his  nation,  intimated  his  suspicion 
that  the  nations  were  both  drunk.  They  did  little, 
therefore,  of  themselves  or  by  their  own  impulse ; 
and,  when  called  upon  to  join  an  expedition,  came 
slowly  and  reluctantly  forward. 

De  Vaudreuil,  in  contemplation  of  a  formidable 
attack,  sought  to  dissipate  it  by  an  offensive  move- 
ment. He  sent  out  a  detachment  200  strong,  which, 
after  a  long  march,  succeeded  in  storming  and  de- 
stroying a  frontier  village  named  Haverhill  ;*  though, 
while  returning,  they  fell  into  an  ambuscade.  Thirty 
of  their  number  were  killed  ;  but,  having  beaten  off 
their  assailants,  the  remainder  reached  Montreal  in 
safeiy.t 

*  In  Kssex  county,  Massachusetts.— .4 w.  Ed. 
t  Henot,  p.  363,  364,  388, 397. 


UNDER    THE    FUENCII.  201 

In  May,  1709,  an  individual  named  V^etch,  who 
had  become  intinialcly  acquainted  with  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  St.  Lawrence,  laid  before  the  cabinet  of 
Queen  Anne  a  plan  for  the  conquest  of  Canada. 
It  being  approved,  he  was  sent  to  New- York,  then 
called  Manhattan,  with  authority  and  resources  sup- 
Dosed  sufficient  for  its  accomplishment.  De  Vau- 
dreuii  soon  learned  that  2000  English  had  issued 
from  the  place  just  mentioned,  and  that  these  were 
to  be  joined  by  an  equal  number  of  savages.  Hav- 
ing mustered  his  troops,  he  at  first  thought  of  car- 
rying war  again  into  the  enemy's  country  ;  but,  after 
the  march  had  begun,  his  allies  objected,  and  he 
adopted  the  more  prudent  course  of  merely  protect- 
ing his  frontier.  The  British,  after  forming  a  chain 
of  posts  from  New- York,  had  occupied  in  great 
force  Lakes  George  and  Cliamplain,  and  were 
erecting  forts  with  a  vie'v  to  cover  their  descent 
upon  Canada.  The  Iroqi(ois  had  joined  them  ac- 
cording to  promise ;  but  it  appears  that  a  general 
council  of  the  cantons  was  held  at  Onondago,  when 
one  of  their  chief  orators  remarked  that  their  inde- 
pendence was  only  maintained  by  the  mutual  jeal- 
ousy of  the  two  European  nations,  each  of  whom, 
if  they  could,  wnuld  lord  it  completely  over  them, 
and  that  it  was  therefore  highly  imprudent  to  per- 
mit the  English  to  conquer  New  France.  These 
views  were  considered  accordant  with  the  policy 
which  had  always  governed  the  cantons,  and  were 
immediately  acted  upon,  though  the  manner  in 
which  this  was  accomplished  does  not  exactly  ap- 
pear. The  English,  however,  in  consequence  of 
this  want  of  co-operation,  and  of  a  pestilential  dis- 
order which  broke  out  among  their  own  troops, 
abandoned  the  enterprise,  burning  their  canoes,  and 
reducing  their  forts  to  ashes.* 

*  A  reporf  has  generally  prevailed,  that  the  froquois  caused 
his  malady  by  throwing  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  into  the  stream 


202  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

Canada  now  enjoyed  an  interval  of  repose,  though 
it  was  understood  that  the  enemy  were  making  act- 
ive preparations  for  a  fresh  expedition,  and  sparing 
no  pains  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  the  Five  Na- 
tions. All  means  of  conciliation  were  therefore 
studiously  employed,  and  were  so  far  successful  as 
to  obtain  friendly  professions  from  the  JSenecas  and 
the  Onondagoes,  but  from  them  alone.  At  this  time, 
however,  the  French  were  involved  in  a.desperate 
struggle  in  the  upper  territory,  with  a  nation  hither- 
to unheard  of,  called  the  Outagamis  or  Foxes.  This 
they  ascribe  to  the  machinations  of  their  old  antag- 
onists, who  yet  do  not  appear  to  have  taken  any 
share  in  the  contest.  By  the  aid  of  a  large  body  of 
Indian  allies,  these  people  were  reduced  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  humbly  soliciting  terms  of  peace.  But 
the  subjects  of  Louis  were  persuaded  by  their  sav- 
age auxiliaries  to  push  matters  to  the  last  extrem- 
ity; and  after  a  fresh  and  dreadful  struggle,  this  un- 
fortunate tribe  was  nearly  exterminated.  The  vic- 
tors, notwithstanding,  had  reason  to  repent  of  their 
barbarous  conduct,  as  the  remnant  of  the  defeated 
nation  carried  on  against  ihem  a  ceaseless  and  har- 
assing warfare,  and  rendered  insecure  their  com- 
munication with  the  settlements  on  the  Mississippi.* 

The  English  in  1710  prepared  a  new  and  greater 
armament.  General  Nicholson  arrived  at  Boston 
with  a  considerable  squadron ;  and  fresh  forces 
were  expected,  which,  with  those  already  in  the 
colony,  were  to  be  employed  in  two  joint  expedi- 
tions, by  sea  against  Quebec,  and  by  land  against 
Montreal.  Notwithstanding  every  possible  prepar- 
ation, these  tidings  excited  deep  apprehension, 
which  continued  unabated  till  a  report  arrived,  and 
proved  ultimately  correct,  that  the  invading  squad- 
ron had  been  wrecked  at  the  Seven  Islands,  near 

out  of  which  the  English  drank  ,  but  we  cannot  think  this  a  very 
probatile  story. 

*  Hervot,  p.  397-416. 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  203 

the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Several  barks 
having  sailed  thither,  found  the  remains  of  eight  ves- 
sels, which,  having  struck  upon  the  rocks,  had  been 
abandoned,  after  being  stripped  of  their  cannon  and 
stores.  A  number  of  dead  bodies  scattered  along 
the  shore  attested  this  calamitous  event.  The  com- 
mander, impatient  to  proceed,  and  disregarding  the 
warning  of  an  experienced  pilot,  had  involved  his 
armament  in  this  disaster.  General  Nicholson  had 
already  taken  the  field ;  but,  learning  the  loss  of  the 
fleet,  and  foreseeing  that  the  whole  force  of  the  en- 
emy would  now  be  turned  against  him,  he  fell  back 
upon  New  York.* 

Though  Canada  had  thus  been  twice  delivered, 
intelligence  was  received  that  fresh  preparations 
were  making,  and  there  was  reason  to  fear  that,  if 
left  without  aid,  she  would  at  length  be  overwhelm- 
ed by  superior  forces.  The  governor,  however,  was 
relieved  by  the  intelligence  that,  in  consequence 
of  a  complete  change  of  ministry,  the  EngHsh 
cabinet  had  determined  to  separate  from  its  allies, 
and  had  opened  a  negotiation  at  Utrecht.  Instruc- 
tions were  sent  to  the  colonial  councils  to  sus- 
pend hostilities.  Both  the  European  powers  being 
favourably  inclined,  the  negotiations  proceeded 
smoothly,  and  on  the  30th  March,  1713,  this  memo- 
rable treaty  was  signed.  France  retained  Canada, 
though  obliged,  by  the  urgency  of  her  circumstances, 
to  cede  Acadia  and  Newfoundland.  She  made  over 
likewise  all  her  claims  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Five  Nations  :  a  very  empty  concession,  by  which 
she  gave  that  which  she  had  never  possessed,  and 
England  received  a  nominal  right  which  she  could 
not  enforce.! 

After  this  treaty  Canada  enjoyed  a  long  period 
of  uninterrupted  tranquillity.  The  observations  of 
Charlevoix,  who  visited   the  principal  settlements 

•  Uenot,  p.  399-4.04.  t  Ibid.,  p.  418,  419 


204  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

during  the  years  1720  and  17-21,  give  a  pretty  good 
idea  of  their  condition  at  that  period.  Quebec  was 
estimated  to  contain  about  7000  inhabitants  ;  both 
the  lower  and  upper  town  were  partially  built,  but 
none  of  the  extensive  suburbs  appear  to  have  then 
existed.  The  view  from  the  summit  of  the  rock  ap- 
peared to  him  extremely  striking;  and  anticipating 
the  change,  since  partly  fulfilled,  when  the  surround- 
ing shores  and  islands,  then  covered  with  almost 
unbroken  forests,  should  display  cultivated  fields, 
meadows,  and  villages,  with  numberless  barks  stud- 
ding the  broad  expanse  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  he  ex- 
pects it  to  form  a  prospect  which  nothing  could 
equal.  The  society,  composed  in  a  great  measure 
of  military  officers  and  noblesse,  was  extremely 
agreeable ;  and  nowhere  was  the  French  language 
spoken  in  greater  purity.  Under  this  gay  exterior, 
however,  was  concealed  a  very  general  poverty. 
The  settlers,  while  they  admitted  that  their  English 
neighbours  knew  better  how  to  accumulate  wealth, 
were  consoled  by  reflecting  that  they  were  quite  ig- 
norant how  to  enjoy  it.  'I'hey  themselves,  on  the 
contrary,  understood  thoroughly  the  most  elegant 
and  agreeable  modes  of  spending  money,  but  were 
greatly  at  a  loss  where  to  obtain  it.  The  only  em- 
ployment suited  to  their  taste  was  the  fur-trade,  the 
rovmg  and  adventurous  habits  of  which  were  ex- 
tremely attractive  to  them,  and  little  fortunes  were 
thereby  occasionally  made  ;  but  they  were  in  such 
haste  to  expend  these  in  pleasure  and  display,  that 
the  author  compares  them  to  hillocks  of  sand  in  the 
deserts  of  Africa,  which  rise  and  disappear  almost 
at  the  same  moment.  Many,  who  had  made  a  hand- 
some figure,  were  now  languishing  in  distress. 
They  began  by  retrenching  the  luxury  of  their  ta- 
ble, and,  as  long  as  possible,  were  richly  dressed. 
The  patient  and  laborious  process  of  agriculture  had 
drawn  little  attention,  and  the  timber-trade  was  yet 
in  its  infancy,  though  the  author  points  out  the  great 


UNDER    THE    FRENCH.  205 

importance  which  it  was  capable  of  attaining.  The 
absence  of  gold  and  silver,  almost  the  only  objects 
then  considered  as  giving  lustre  to  a  colony,  had  al- 
wiys  caused  New  France  to  be  viewed  as  of  very 
si^condary  importance.* 

Tiie  coasts  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  for  some  extent 
below  Quebec,  were  already  laid  out  in  seigniories, 
and  tolerably  cultivated.  At  I'uinte  aux  Trembles, 
seven  leagues  from  the  capital,  many  of  the  farmers 
were  found  in  easy  circumstances,  and  richer  than 
their  landlords ;  the  latter,  having  obtained  grants 
which  they  had  neither  capital  nor  industry  to  im- 
prove, were  obliged  to  let  them  at  very  small  quit- 
rents.  On  reaching  the  mouth  of  the  Be9ancour, 
he  found  a  baron  beanng  the  title  of  that  river,  and 
holding  the  office  of  inspector  of  the  highways.  He 
lived  almost  in  a  desert,  and  derived  his  income 
chiefly  from  traffic  with  the  neighbouring  Indians. 
Thence  Charlevoix  crossed  to  Trois  Rivieres,  which 
he  found  an  agreeable  place,  amid  a  circuit  of  well- 
cultivated  fields,  but  not  containing  more  than  800 
inhabitants.  The  fur-trade,  with  a  view  to  which 
it  was  founded,  had  already  been  in  a  great  measure 
transferred  to  Montreal,  and  the  iron-mines  had  not 
yet  begun  to  be  worked. 

From  Trois  Rivieres  he  proceeded  through  the 
'  Lake  of  St.  Peter,  and,  coasting  along  its  southern 
shore,  made  particular  observations  on  the  river  and 
district  of  St.  Francis.  From  its  excellent  soil, 
covered  with  timber,  it  appeared  to  him  well  fitted 
for  cultivation ;  but  the  farmers  were  few,  and  had 
made  such  small  progress,  that,  but  for  the  oppor- 
truities  of  trade,  they  would  have  been  extremely 
poor.  A  more  cheerful  scene  presented  itself  at  the 
island  and  city  of  Montreal,  the  beauties  of  which 
he  describes  in  terms  similar  to  those  of  all  subse- 

*  Charltvoix'fl  Journal  vol  i.,  p.  104,  111-114,  121-125,  145 
2C;}-J6r-. 

I.-Q 


206  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

queiit  visiters.  He  does  not  make  any  estimate  oi 
the  population ;  but  it  must  iiave  been  considerable, 
as  both  the  upper  and  lower  towns  were  already 
built,  and  a  suburb  had  been  commenced.  The  place 
was  then  enjoying  a  respite  from  the  alarms  and 
calamities  of  war;  and  the  two  neighbouring  villa- 
ges of  Sault  St.  Louis  and  JMontgomery,  inhabited 
by  friendly  Indians,  served  as  barriers  against  their 
more  savage  countrymen.* 

Above  Montreal,  the  traveller  appears  to  have 
found  nothing  but  detached  stations  for  defence  and 
trade.  He  made  his  way  through  the  rapids  to  Lake 
Ontario,  in  Indian  canoes  formed  of  birch-bark.  We 
find  no  mention  of  anything  French  till  he  comes 
to  Fort  Cataraqui  or  Frontenac,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  lake  ;  but  in  his  short  description  there  is  no  ap- 
pearance as  if  the  neighbourhood  contained  either 
cultivation  or  settlement.  He  had  then  a  tedious 
voyage  to  perform  along  the  southern  shore  in  slen- 
der canoes,  in  which  he  was  obliged  to  follow  every 
wmding  of  the  coast,  and  often  to  sail  two  hundred 
leagues  in  order  to  shun  a  direct  passage  of  twenty. 
He  was  liable  also  to  be  detained  for  an  indefinite 
period  by  violent  or  adverse  winds.  At  length  he 
entered  the  river  of  Niagara,  and  came  to  a  cottage 
which  had  been  dignified  to  him  with  the  name  of 
fortress,  and  was  occupied  by  the  Sieur  de  Joncaire. 
There  were  two  or  three  officers  of  rank,  and,  we 
presume,  a  few  troops,  but  apparently  no  trace  of 
cultivation.! 

After  having  surveyed  the  falls,  he  ascended  the 
channel  of  Niagara,  and  having  entered  upon  Lake 
Erie,  proceeded  along  its  northern  shore.  The 
voyage  appeared  to  him  delightful,  in  a  charming 
climate,  on  waters  clear  as  the  purest  fountain,  and 
landing  every  night  on  the  most  desirable  spots.     He 

»  Charlevoix,  Journal,  vol.  i.,  p.  172-178,  190,  213-218. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  21)3-297,  312-31G,  341. 


U>DER    THE    FRENCH.  207 

found  always  abundance  of  game,  and  a  beautiful 
landscape,  bounded  by  the  noblest  forests  in  the 
world.  He  fancied  himself,  like  the  ancient  pa- 
triarchs, wandering  through  wide,  unappropriated 
tracts,  where  he  could  pitch  his  tent  in  the  most 
pleasant  scenes.  The  oaks  of  Mamre  and  the  foun- 
tain of  Jacob  seemed  realized  to  him  in  the  wilder- 
ness. Five  days'  sail  along  these  beautiful  shores 
brought  him  to  the  chamiel  of  Detroit,  at  the  otlier 
end  of  which,  near  Lake  St.  Clair,  he  found  the  fort 
bearing  that  name.  He  inclined  to  the  opinion  of 
those  who  regarded  this  as  the  most  beautiful  and 
fruitful  part  of  all  Canada.  A  French  settlement 
had  been  begun  there  fifteen  years  before,  but  vari- 
ous untoward  circumstances  had  reduced  it  almost 
to  nothing.  He  proceeded  thence  to  Michillimacki- 
nac,  near  the  adjoining  extremities  of  the  great  lakes 
Huron,  Superior,  and  Michigan.  Like  the  others, 
it  was  a  mere  fort  surrounded  by  an  Indian  village 
On  the  whole,  it  appears  that,  above  Montreal,  there 
was  nothing  at  this  time  which  could  be  called  a 
colony. t 

The  repose  procured  for  Canada  by  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht  was  followed  by  a  long  continuance  of  pros- 
perity. Vaudreuil,  till  his  death  in  1725,  admin- 
istered her  affairs  with  judgment  and  activity;  and 
under  him  cultivation  was  greatly  extended.  To 
remedy  the  want  of  hands,  he  proposed  sending  out 
annually  150  convicts,  of  the  class  usually  con- 
iemned  to  the  galleys. 

This  governor  was  succeeded  by  the  Chevalier  de 
Beauharnois,  who  continued  in  power  twenty  years. 
This  long  period  seems  to  have  been  diligently  em- 
ployed in  promoting  the  interests  of  the  colony, 
and  was  productive  of  remarkable  improvement. 
The  range  of  cultivated  farius  was  extended  along 
the  whole  shore  from  Quebec  to  Montreal,  and  even 

•  Charlevoix,  Journal,  vol.  »  ,  p.  3-7 


208  HrSTORY    OF    CANADA 

several  of  the  tributary  streams.  As  the  French 
Canadiins  studiously  sought  a  river-frontage,  they 
were  content  with  lots  including  only  a  small  portion 
of  this,  with  extensive  back-ground.  'I'he  propor- 
tion, in  some  degree  fixed  by  statute,  was  an  acre 
and  a  half  in  front,  with  an  extent  of  forty  behind. 
In  the  course  of  this  period,  too,  the  settlement  at 
Detroit,  which  Charlevoix  had  found  in  such  a  lan- 
guishing state,  was  raised  to  so..  ^  consequence. 

The  French  likewise,  during  this  interval,  appear 
to  have  entirely  overcome  that  rooted  enmity  so  long 
cherished  by  the  great  Indian  tribes.  Their  pliant 
and  courteous  manners,  their  frequent  intermarria- 
ges, and,  in  some  instances,  an  actual  adoption  of  the 
habits  of  savage  life,  rendered  them  belter  fitted  than 
the  English  to  secure  the  confidence  of  this  savage 
race,  instead  of  having  to  dread  them  as  allies  of 
Britain,  they  could  usually,  when  occasion  required, 
employ  them  as  formidable,  or,  at  least,  harassing 
enemies  to  her.  By  their  aid,  and  by  the  erection 
in  commanding  positions  of  the  forts  of  Crown  Point 
and  Ticonderoga,  tliey  kept  the  rival  colonies  in 
perpetual  alarm.  The  struggles,  however,  carried 
on  during  almost  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century  were  chiefly  confined  to  Nova  Scotia,  under 
which  head  they  will  be  narrated.  Canada  enjoyed 
a  happy  exemption  from  those  eventful  vicissitudes 
»vhich  form  the  materials  of  history. 

An  equally  favourable  change  took  place  in  re- 
spect to  the  fur-trade,  which  had  shown  so  great  a 
T)reference  of  the  English  market.  A  more  liberal 
and  equitable  system  appears  to  have  been  adopted  ; 
and  a  large  annual  fair,  opened  at  Montreal  under 
judicious  regulations,  became  the  general  centre  of 
this  traflic.  Even  the  Indians  in  the  back  settle- 
ments of  New-York  brought  their  furs  thither  rather 
han  to  the  capital  of  that  state.* 

*  \T'G'egiir'.«  British  America,  vol  ii.,  p.  374.  Burke's  Ac- 
count of  he  European  Settlements  m  America  (2  vols.  9vo, 
London,  1608),  vol.  u.,  p.  42,  4.3. 


UNDER    THE    FREiNCH.  209 

M.  de  Beauharnois  was  followed  in  office  by  a 
rapid  succession  of  governors,  each  holding  sway 
for  an  extremely  short  period,  incompatible  with 
any  steady  system  of  adminisiralion.  The  Count 
de  la  Galissoniere,  though  a  nobleman  of  great  ac- 
quirements, ruled  only  a  year,  being  superseded  in 
1746  by  M.  de  la  Jonquiere,  who  took  an  active  part 
in  liie  war  for  the  reduction  of  Nova  Scotia.  After 
a  temporary  occupation  of  power  by  the  Baron  de 
Longueuil,  the  Marquis  da  Quesne,  in  1752,  went 
out  as  governor-general.  This  officer  appears  to 
have  carried  on  more  openly  than  ever  the  system 
of  encroaching  upon  the  British  colonies ;  and  the 
fort  bearing  his  name  was  erected  within  the  con- 
fines of  Virginia.  So  great  an  alarm,  indeed,  spread 
through  our  settlements,  that  a  general  convention 
was  held  at  Albany,  when  a  plan  of  common  de- 
fence, proposed  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Franklin,  was 
approved,  but,  from  different  causes,  never  carried 
into  effect.*  A  census  taken  of  the  colony  in  1753, 
is  said  by  Raynal  to  have  shown  a  population  of 
91,000;  but,  from  the  number  afterward  found  by 
the  English,  this  appears  to  be  somewhat  exagger- 
ated. The  finances  were,  however,  involved  in  con- 
siderable disorder.  The  expenditure,  which  in  1729 
did  not  exceed  400,000  francs,  had  risen  in  1750  to 
2,100,000  livres;  in  1758  it  was  '27,900,000;  but  this 
last,  we  may  observe,  was  a  period  of  general  war, 
of  which  North  America  became  one  of  the  principal 
theatres.  The  conduct  of  Bigot,  the  intendant,  was 
loudly  complained  of,  and  proved,  indeed,  to  have 
been  most  fraudulent,  his  defalcations  amounting 
to  about  1,920,000  dollars.  In  1755,  Du  Quesne  was 
succeeded  by  De  Vaudreuil  Cavagnal.f 

*  The  failure  of  the  plan  of  union  here  spoken  of  was  owing 
to  its  beitiu;  rejected  by  the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain,  from  the 
fear  that  it  would  too  mucli  increase  the  power  of  the  colonies. 
—Am.  Ed. 

t  M'Gregor,  vol.  ii.,  p.  375-381.     Raynal,  Histoire  Philoso- 


210  HISTORY    OP    CANADA 


CHAPTER  IV. 

History  of  Canada  under  the  British. 

War  between  Great  Britain  and  France.— Advantages  gamed 
by  the  latter. — Expedition  against  Canada  under  Wolfe. — 
His  first  Repulse. —Lands  a  second  Time. — Victory. — Death. 
—Conquest  of  Canada.  — State  of  the  Population. — Their 
good  Treatment.— Refuse  to  join  the  Rebellion  by  the  United 
Colonies.— The  latter  invade  Canada.— Siege  of  Quebec. — 
Repulse  and  Death  of  Montgomery. — Americans  driven  out 
of  Canada. — A  Constitution  granted.— Division  into  Upper 
and  Lower. — Rise  of  Internal  Dissension. — War  with  the 
United  States. — Advantages  gained  by  Britain  on  the  west- 
ern Frontier.— On  the  INiagura,  &c. — The  Americans  take 
York  (Toronto)  and  Fort  George.— Obliged  to  Retreat.— Their 
Successes  in  the  West.— Fruitless  Attempt  on  Montreal. — ■ 
Events  on  the  Niagara  Frontier. — Large  Re-enforcements 
from  England. — Failure  of  Sir  George  Prevost. — Peace. — 
Discontents  of  the  Assembly. — Administration  of  the  Duke 
of  Richmond. — Earl  of  Dalhousie.— Sir  James  Kempt.— Lord 
Aytmer. — Increased  Discontent.— Commission  of  Inquiry. — 
Earl  of  Gosford.— Assembly  still  refuse  Supplies.— Resolu- 
tions of  the  British  Parliament.— Disturbances  in  Canada. — 
Insurrection. — Suppressed.— Political  Movements  in  Upper 
Canada.— Sir  Francis  Head  Governor.— Rising  and  Defeat  of 
Mackenzie.— Aggressions  from  the  United  States  —Conduct 
of  their  Government.— Mission  of  the  Earl  of  Durham. — Re- 
cent Events. 

We  now  approach  the  most  memorable  period  in 
the  history  of  Canada,  when  its  dominion  was 
finally  transferred  from  France  to  a  rival  power. 
As  the  events  of  this  contest,  however,  though  ex- 
tremely memorable,  form  a  portion  of  general  his- 
tory, and  are  familiar  to  many  readers,  we  shall 

phique  et  Politique  des  Etablissements  et  du  Commerce  de« 
Europeens  dans  les  deux  Indes  (4  vols.  4to,  Geneva,  1780),  vol. 
iv.,  p.  125,  137.  Hawkins's  Picture  of  Quebec  (18mo,  Quebec, 
1834),  p.  316,  317. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  211 

here  content  ourselves  with  a  rapid  summary  ol 
them. 

The  great  war  which  broke  out  in  1755  opened 
in  a  manner  most  unfavourable  to  the  British  arms. 
General  Braddock,  who  marciied  from  New- York 
against  Canada,  having  neglected  the  precautions 
necessary  in  such  a  country,  was  completely  sur- 
prised by  a  combined  force  of  French  and  Indians. 
He  himself  being  killed,  only  part  of  the  army  was 
saved  by  the  skill  and  intrepidity  of  Colonel  (after- 
ward General)  Washington,  who  on  that  occasion 
distinguished  himself  for  the  first  time.  His  troops 
being  afterward  joined  to  the  provincial  force  under 
Generals  Shirley  and  Johnson,  repulsed  near  Lake 
George  an  attack  made  by  a  large  body  of  the  en- 
emy under  Baron  Dieskau.  Johnson,  having  ac- 
quitted himself  with  great  ability,  and  received  sev- 
eral wounds,  was  rewarded  with  the  honour  of 
knighthood,  and  was  long  nmch  esteemed  in  Amer- 
ican warfare.*  But  in  the  two  following  years  the 
enemy,  headed  by  the  gallant  Marquis  de  Montcalm, 
obtained  a  series  of  successes,  terminating  in  the 
reduction  of  the  important  forts  called  Oswego  and 
William  Henry.  This  last  triumph  was  stained 
with  the  barbarous  murder,  by  the  Indians,  of  fif- 
teen hundred  English  prisoners;  which  Montcalm, 
though,  it  should  seem,  unjustly,  was  accused  of 
sanctioning.  These  disasters,  joined  to  the  failure 
of  Admiral  Byng  at  Minorca,  and  other  abortive  ex- 
peditions, deeply  depressed  the  spirit  of  the  nation, 
and  seemed  to  sink  their  reputation  in  arms  lower 
than  at  any  former  period.  Yet  the  courage  of  the 
British  nation  was  soon  afterward  roused  :  the  pub- 
lic voice  called  to  the  helm  of  affairs  William  Pitt, 
the  greatest  statesman  then  living,  and  who  was 
destined  to  raise  his  country  to  a  pitch  of  glory 
before  unrivalled 

•  Hawkins,  p.  318,  319.    Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  440, 


212  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

It  was  one  of  the  main  objects  of  Pitt's  policy  to 
obtain  possession  of  the  French  territories  in  Amer- 
ica, and  to  form  them,  together  with  the  British 
colonies,  into  one  vast  range  of  dominion.  He 
chose  as  his  chief  instrument  Wolfe,  a  young  man 
without  family  or  parliamentary  interest,  or  even 
any  established  character  as  a  commander.  He 
had  served  only  in  subordinate  situations ;  yet  the 
minister,  with  intuitive  sagacity,  saw  in  him  the 
man  best  fitted  to  lend  British  troops  to  victory.* 
In  the  expedition  against  Louisburg  in  1758,  the 
most  active,  though  not  the  highest,  post  was  as- 
signed to  him,  and  through  his  exertions,  chiefly, 
ihat  main  bulwark  of  French  America  fell.  After 
the  great  name  thus  earned,  there  could  no  longer 
be  any  objection  to  investing  him  with  the  chief 
command. 

In  1759  preparations  were  made  on  a  great  scale 
for  the  conquest  of  Canada,  comprising  twenty  sail 
of  the  line,  with  smaller  vessels  and  transports, 
having  on  board  8000  veteran  troops.  These  were 
placed  under  the  direction  of  Wolfe,  who  was  al- 
lowed the  choice  of  all  his  officers.  After  a  pros- 
perous voyage,  the  armament,  on  the  26th  June, 
arrived  off  the  Isle  of  Orleans.  Quebec  was  de- 
fended by  the  Marquis  de  Montcalm,  having  undef 
his  command  13,000  men,  of  whom,  indeed,  only 
2000  were  regular  troops,  the  rest  being  Canadian 
militia,  with  a  few  Indians.  The  attack  having 
been  long  foreseen,  full  time  was  given  him  to  in- 
trench and  strengthen  his  position.  An  attempt 
was  first  made  to  destroy  the  British  fleet  by  fire- 
ships  ;  but  these  were  caught  with  grappling-irons, 
towed  aside,  and  allowed  to  burn  out  without  doing 
any  injury.  Brigadier-general  Monckton  then  oc- 
cupied Point  Levi,  opposite  to  the  capital,  which 
was  thence  bombarded  with  vigour  ;  but,  though  a 

*  Entick's  History  of  the  late  War,  vol  iv.,  p.  91. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  213 

number  of  houses  were  destroyed,  the  defences  re» 
mained  almost  uninjured.  The  place,  therefore, 
could  only  be  carried  by  storming  the  intrench- 
ments  which  the  French  had  thrown  up  in  front  of 
it.  This  bold  measure  Wolfe  resolved  to  adopt, 
and  on  the  31st  July  he  effected  a  landing.  The 
boats,  however,  had  met  with  an  accidental  delay  ; 
the  grenadiers,  it  is  said,  rushed  forward  with  too 
blind  and  impetuous  a  valour;  Montcalm,  strongly 
posted  between  Quebec  and  Montmorenci,  poured 
in  upon  them  a  destructive  fire  ;  the  Indian  rifle 
told  with  fatal  effect;  and  the  assailants  were 
finally  repulsed  with  the  loss  of  182  killed  and  650 
wounded. 

Wolfe  felt  this  disappointment  so  deeply  that  his 
delicate  frame  was  thrown  into  a  violent  fever  ;  and 
in  a  despatch  to  Mr.  Pitt,  he  afterward  expressed 
the  apprehensions  under  which  he  laboured.  The 
fleet,  his  strongest  arm,  could  not  act  agiiinst  the 
wall  of  rock  on  which  Quebec  is  seated  ;  and  with 
his  weakened  force  he  had  to  storm  fortified  povsi- 
tions  defended  by  troops  more  numerous  than  his 
own.  As  soon,  however,  as  his  health  permitted, 
he  called  a  council  of  war,  desired  the  general  offi- 
cers to  consult  together,  and,  it  is  said,  proposed  to 
them  a  second  attack  on  the  French  lines,  avoiding 
the  errors  which  had  led  to  the  failure  of  the  first. 
They  were  decidedly  of  opinion  that  this  was  inex- 
pedient ;  but,  on  the  suggestion,  as  is  now  believed, 
of  Brigadier-gener-ril  Townsend,  the  second  in  com- 
mand, they  proposed  to  attempt  a  point  on  the  other 
side  of  Quebec,  where  the  enemy  were  yet  unpre- 
pared, and  whence  they  might  gain  the  Heights  of 
Abraham,  which  overlooked  the  city.  Wolfe  as- 
sented, and  applied  all  his  powers  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  plan.  Such  active  demonstrations 
were  made  against  Montcalm's  original  position,  that 
he  believed  it  still  the  main  object;  and,  though 
he    observed   detachments    moving    up    the    river 

I.— B, 


214  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

merely  sent  De  Bougainville  with  2000  men  to 
Cape  Rouge,  a  position  too  distant,  being  nine  miles 
above  Quebec.  On  the  night  of  the  12th  September, 
in  deep  silence,  the  troops  were  embarked  and  con- 
veyed in  two  divisions  to  the  place  now  named 
Wolfe's  Cove.  The  precipice  here  was  so  steep, 
that  even  the  general  for  a  moment  doubted  the 
possibility  of  scaling  it;  but  Fraser's  Highlanders, 
grasping  the  bushes  which  grew  on  its  face,  soon 
reached  the  summit,  and  in  a  sliort  time  he  had  his 
whole  army  drawn  up  in  regular  order  on  the  plains 
above.  Montcnlm,  struck  by  this  unexpected  intel- 
ligence, at  once  concluded  that,  unless  the  English 
could  be  driven  from  this  position,  Quebec  was  lost ; 
and  hoping,  probably,  that  only  a  detachment  had  yet 
reached  it,  pushed  forward  at  once  to  the  attack. 
About  1500  light  infantry  and  Indians  arrived  first, 
and  began  a  desultory  fire  from  among  the  bushes ; 
but  the  British  reserved  their  shot  for  the  main 
body,  which  was  seen  advancing  behind.  They 
came  forward  in  good  order,  and  commenced  a  brisk 
attack ;  yet  no  general  fire  was  opened  in  return  till 
they  were  within  forty  yards,  when  it  could  be  fol- 
lowed up  by  the  bayonet.  The  first  volley  was  de- 
cisive; Wolfe  and  Montcalm  both  fell  almost  at  the 
same  moment ;  the  French  instantly  gave  way  in 
every  quarter;  and  repeated  charges,  in  which  the 
Highland  broadsword  was  powerfully  wielded,  soon 
completed  the  victory.  As  soon  as  Wolfe  received 
his  mortal  wound,  he  said,  "  Support  me  !  let  not 
my  brave  soldiers  see  me  drop."  He  was  carried 
to  some  distance  in  the  rear,  and  hearing  the  cry, 
''They  run!"  he  asked.  "  Who  run  V'  Being  told 
"The'eneniy,"  he  gave  some  short  directions,  and 
then  said,  "  Now,  God  be  praised,  I  die  happy!" 
We  cannot  forbear  quoting  the  simple  and  feelmg 
observations  of  General  Townsend  respecting  his 
heroic  friend,  whose  fate  threw  so  affecting  a  lustre 
on  thi-^  memorable  victory :  "  1  am  not  ashamed  to 


ONDER    THE    BRITISH.  215 

dwn  to  you,  that  my  heart  does  not  exult  in  the 
midst  of  this  success.  I  have  lost  but  a  friend  in 
General  Wolfe ;  our  country  has  lost  a  sure  sup- 
port and  a  perpetual  honour.  If  the  world  were 
sensible  at  how  dear  a  price  we  have  purchased 
Quebec  in  his  death,  it  would  damp  the  public  joy. 
Our  best  consolation  is,  that  Providence  seemed 
not  to  promise  that  he  should  remain  long  among 
us.  He  was  himself  sensible  of  the  weakness  of 
his  constitution,  and  determined  to  crowd  into  a 
few  years  actions  that  would  have  adorned  length 
of  life." 

The  battle  had  scarcely  closed  when  De  Bougain- 
ville appeared  in  the  rear ;  but,  on  seeing  the  fortune 
of  the  day,  immediately  retreated.  On  the  17th  a 
flag  of  truce  came  out,  and  on  the  18th  a  capitula- 
tion was  concluded  on  honourable  terms  to  the 
French,  who  were  not  made  prisoners,  but  con- 
veyed home  to  their  native  country.* 

Canada  was  not  yet  conquered.  General  Am 
herst,  indeed,  marching  from  New-York  with  a 
large  force,  had  reduced  the  strong  posts  of  Ticon- 
deroga  and  Crown  Point;  while  General  Prideaux, 
aided  by  Sir  William  Johnson  with  a  body  of  In- 
dians, had  taken  Niagara.  But  the  winter  arrested 
their  farther  advance  ;  and  General  de  Levi,  who  had 
assembled  at  Montreal  upward  of  ten  thousand 
men,  conceived  the  design  of  recapturing  Quebec  in 
the  spring,  before  it  could  obtain  succours  either  by 
sea  or  land.  Being  baffled  in  his  projects  to  carry 
it  by  a  coup  de  main,  he  landed  his  army  on  the  27th 
April,  1760,  advanced  to  the  heights  of  Abraham, 
and  prepared  to  carry  on  a  regular  siege.  General 
Murray  had  been  left  with  a  garrison  of  6000  men ; 
but  a  severe  attack  of  scurvy  had  reduced  to  half 
that  number  those  who  were  capable  of  bearing 
arms.     This  officer,  dreading  that  the  place  was  un- 

*  hlntick's  History  of  the  Late  War,  vol.  iv.,  p.  66-118. 
Hawkins'  Picture  of  Quebec,  p.  331,  359,  373,  374, 


2i6  HlSTOfiY    OF    CANADA 

fit  to  Stand  a  siege,  and  hoping  much  fiom  the 
bravery  of  his  troops,  attacked  the  enemy  on  the 
27th  April  at  Sillery  ;  but,  being  overpowered  by  su- 
perior numbers,  he  was  defeated  with  ^reat  loss. 
If  guilty  here  of  any  rashness,  he  atoned  for  it  by 
the  activity  with  which  he  placed  Quebec  in  a  state 
of  defence,  and  held  out  the  town  till  the  15th  May, 
when  a  fleet,  under  Admiral  Swanton,  arrived  and 
raised  the  siege.  The  French  army  then  concen- 
trated itself  in  Montreal,  where  the  Marquis  de  Vau- 
dreuil  made  an  attempt  to  maintain  his  ground  ;  but 
being  enclosed  by  the  forces  under  General  Am- 
herst, and  by  those  from  Quebec  and  Niagara,  he 
found  himself  obliged,  on  the  8th  September,  1760, 
to  sign  a  capitulation,  by  which  that  city  and  the 
whole  of  Canada  were  transferred  to  British  domin- 
ion. He  obtained  liberal  stipulations  for  the  good 
treatment  of  the  inhabitants,  and  particularly  the 
free  exercise  of  the  Catholic  faith,  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  property  belonging  to  the  religious  com- 
munities. He  even  demanded  that  the  bishop  should 
continue  to  be  appointed  by  the  French  monarch, 
but  this  was  of  course  refused.*  The  possession  of 
Canada,  as  well  as  of  all  the  adjoining  countries,  was 
confirmed  to  Britain  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  signed 
on  the  10th  February,  1763. 

The  population  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  was 
stated  by  Governor  Murray  to  amount  to  69,275, 
consisting  mostly  of  cultivators,  a  frugal,  industri- 
ous, and  moral  race ;  with  a  noblesse,  also  very 
poor,  but  much  respected  among  them.  The  Indians 
converted  to  Catholicism  were  estimated  at  7400. f 
The  inhabitants  were  involved  in  great  calamity  by 
the  refusal  of  the  French  government  to  pay  the  bills 
drawn  and  'he  paper  currency  issued  by  M.  Bigot, 
the  late  intendant,  already  mentioned  as  having 
been  guilty  of  the  most  extensive  peculation.     The 

*  Hawkins,  p.  410-413.     Entick,  vol.  iv.,  p.  473,  474. 
\  M'Gregor,  vol.  ii.,  p.  382. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  217 

gross  sum  is  stated  by  Raynal  at  80,000,000  of  livres 
(i^3,333,000  sterling);  bv'it,  considering  the  small 
number  and  poverty  of  the  people,  we  cauniit  help 
suspecting  it  to  be  much  exaggerated.  It  is  said 
that  the  claims  were,  on  grounds  of  equity,  reduced 
to  38,000,000;  though,  according  to  M'Gregor,  no 
more  was  received  in  return  for  them  than  £'250,000  . 
in  money,  and  jCl25,000  in  bonds,  which  never  be-  ; 
came  effective.* 

The  terms  in  favour  of  the  French  residents  were 
faithfully,  and  even  liberally,  fulfilled  by  the  English 
governtnent.  All  offices,  however,  were  conferred 
on  British  subjects,  who  then  consisted  only  of  mil- 
itary men,  vvitfi  not  quite  500  petty  traders,  many  of 
whom  were  ill  fitted  for  so  important  a  situation. 
They  showed  a  bigoted  spirit,  and  an  offensive  con- 
tempt of  the  old  inhabitants,  including  even  their 
class  of  nobles.  General  Murray,  notwithstanding, 
strenuously  protected  the  latter,  without  regard  to 
repeated  complaints  made  against  him  to  the  minis- 
try at  home ;  and  by  this  impartial  conduct  he  gain- 
ed their  confidence  in  a  degree  which  became  con- 
spicuous on  occasion  of  the  great  revolt  of  the 
United  Colonies.  During  that  momentous  period, 
though  pressingly  invited  to  assist  the  latter,  the 
Canadians  never  swerved  from  their  allegiance. 
With  a  view  to  conciliate  them,  the  "  Quebec  Act," 
passed  in  1774.  changed  the  English  civil  law,  which 
had  been  at  first  introduced,  for  the  ancient  system 
called  the  coutume  de  Pans.  The  French  language 
was  also  directed  to  be  employed  in  the  law-courts, 
and  other  changes  made  with  the  view  of  gratifying 
that  nation.  These  concessions  did  not,  however, 
give  universal  satisfaction,  especially  as  they  were 
not  attended  with  any  grant  of  a  national  represent- 
ation. 

The  Americans,  finding  all  their  proposals  reject 

•  Rayral,  vol.  v.,  p.  230.    M'Gregor,  vol.  ii.,  p.  381 


218  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

ed,  determined  to  view  Canada  as  a  hostile  country 
They  observed  that  the  British,  almost  entirely  oc- 
cupied in  the  attempt  to  put  down  the  insurrection, 
had  left   this  country  very  slightly  defended.     In 
September,  1775,  two  expeditions  were  fitted  out, 
which  were  distinguished  by  tragical  events,  as  well 
as  by  the   brilliant   and   romantic  valour  of  their 
chiefs.     While  the  main  body,  under  Montgomery, 
marched  by  Lake  Champlain  upon  Montrea»,  Arnold 
with  1100  men,  sailed  up  the  Kennebec,  and  pro 
ceeded  through  the  vast  forest  that  stretches   be 
tween  it  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  hoping  to  surprise 
Quebec.     The  sufferings  of  the  party  were  extreme, 
being  obliged  to  eat  dogs'  desh  and  the  leather  of 
their  cartouch-boxes.     Ye  tthey  arrived,  on  the  9th 
November,  at  Point  Levi,  without  any  alarm  having 
reached  the  capital ;  but  all  the  shipping  had  fortu- 
nately been  removed  from  that  side.     Arnold  was 
thus  unable  to  cross,  and  in  twenty-four  hours  the 
inhabitants  were  apprized  of  the  danger.     On  the 
14th  that  active  officer  contrived  to  pass  the  river 
and  occupy  the  Heights  of  Abraham,  though  his 
force  was  too  smp.U  for  active  movements  till  joined 
by  Montgomery.     This  commander  sent  forward  a 
reconnoitring   party  under    Colonel    Ethan   Allen, 
who  made  a  brave  but  rash  attempt  on  Montreal,  in 
which  he  was  taken  with  his  party,  and  afterward 
sent  in  irons  to  England.     Montgomery,  however 
having  reduced  the  posts  of  St.  John  and  Chambly 
and  made  prisoners  of  their  garrisons,  which  inclu- 
ded a  large  proportion  of  the  regular  force  in  Can- 
ada, that  city  was  quite  unable  to  resist ;  and  Gen 
eral  Carleton,  the  governor,  with  difficulty  escapee 
m  a  boat  with   muffled   paddles.     The   Americar 
leader  then  advanced  upon  Quebec,  and  took  the 
command  of  the  united  force.     Carleton  had  undet 
arms  only  1800  men,  of  whom  not  more  than  seven 
ty  were  regulars  ;  230  of  Eraser's  Highlanders,  whc 
had  settled  in  the  country,  were  reimbodied  under 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  219 

Colonel  M'Lean  ;  the  rest  were  British  and  Canadi- 
an militia,  seamen,  and  others.  The  summons  to 
surrender,  however,  was  at  once  rejected ;  and 
Montgomery,  after  puvshing  the  siege  during  the 
month  of  December  without  any  prospect  of  suc- 
cess, determined  to  carry  the  place  by  a  night-as- 
sault. On  the  31st,  two  storming  parties  were 
formed  ;  one  under  himself,  and  the  other  under  Ar- 
nold. They  were  to  advance  from  opposite  sides, 
and  meet  at  the  foot  of  Mountain-street,  then  force 
Prescott  Gate,  and  reach  the  upper  town.  Th-e 
first  battery  encountered  by  Montgomery  was  de- 
fended chiefly  by  a  party  of  Canadian  militia,  with 
nine  British  seamen  to  work  the  guns.  Having  re- 
ceived some  previous  notice,  they  were  on  the 
watch;  and,  about  daybreak,  saw  amid  the  snow  a 
body  of  troops  in  full  march  from  Wolfe's  Cove. 
Orders  were  given  to  make  no  movement ;  and  the 
enemy  having  halted  at  the  distance  of  fifty  yards, 
sent  forward  an  officer  to  reconnoitre,  who  found 
everything  perfectly  still.  On  his  return  the  Amer- 
icans rushed  forward  in  double  quick  time  to  the 
attack.  When  they  were  close  to  the  spot.  Captain 
Barnsfare,  at  the  critical  moment,  gave  the  signal 
for  a  general  discharge  of  guns  and  musketry.  It 
told  with  unexpected  and  fatal  effect ;  for,  among 
many  others,  Montgomery  himself,  the  gallant  chief, 
fell  to  rise  no  more.  The  troops,  on  witnessing 
this  disaster,  made  a  precipitate  retreat.* 

Meantime  Arnold,  from  the  opposite  side,  pushed 

♦  This  event  has  been  very  variously  related.  Hinton  (His 
tory  and  Topography  of  the  (Jnited  States,  2  vols.  4to,  London, 
1834  vol.  i.,  336)  even  represents  it  as  a  mere  casual  fire  by 
which  Montgomery  was  killed  ;  but  we  have  followed  Hawkins, 
whose  narrative  appears  to  be  the  result  of  very  careful  re- 
tearch  ♦ 

*  Notwithstanding  what  is  here  said,  the  better  opinion  andoabtedly 
.s,  thai  this  was  a  mere  random  shot ;  and  that,  but  for  this  fatal  cas- 
ualty, the  surprise  would  have  been  complete,  and  the  result  of  tbe  ea- 
lerprise  very  different  from  what  it  proved.— .^m  E4. 


220  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

on  his  attack  with  desperate  resolution.  In  as. 
saulting  the  first  barrier,  he  received  a  severe  wound 
in  the  leg,  which  obliged  him  to  quit  the  field.* 
But  his  party,  led  on  by  Captain  Morgan,  carried 
the  post,  and  pushed  on  to  a  second.  Here,  how' 
ever,  their  eflforts  were  vain  ;  and  General  Carletoi 
having  sent  a  detachment  upon  their  rear,  they 
were  surrounded,  and  finally,  to  the  number  of  426 
obliged  to  surrender.  Neither  of  the  parties  thu> 
reached  the  main  point  of  attack  at  Prescott  Gate 
where  the  governor  was  stationed,  with  the  deter- 
mination to  maintain  it  to  the  last  extremity. 

The  British  were  not  yet  aware  of  all  the  results 
of  the  contest.  As  soon  as  the  retreat  of  the  firsi 
party  was  ascertained,  they  went  out  and  collected 
:--nin  under  the  snow,  which  had  already  covered 
mem,  thirteen  bodies.  The  surmise  soon  arose 
that  one  of  them  was  that  of  the  commander;  yet 
some  hours  elapsed  before  an  officer  of  Arnold's  di- 
vision identified  him,  with  the  deepest  expressions 
of  admiration  and  regret.  Montgomery,  a  gentle- 
man of  good  family  in  the  north  of  Ireland,  had 
served  under  Wolfe,  but  having  afterward  formed  a 
matrimonial  connexion  in  America,  he  had  adopted 
with  enthusiasm  the  cause  of  the  United  States  as 
that  of  liberty.  His  military  character,  joined  to 
his  private  virtues,  inspired  general  esteem,  and  haa 
secured  to  him  a  place  on  the  roll  of  noble  and  gal- 
lant chiefs  who  fell  beneath  the  walls  of  Quebec. 

Arnold  succeeded  to  the  command,  and  attempted 
still  to  maintain  his  ground  ;  but  the  dispirited  state 
of  his  men,  still  more  than  his  actual  loss,  rendered 

♦  What  a  melancholy  contrast  to  the  heroism  here  displayed, 
was  exhibited  m  the  conduct  of  this  officer  at  a  subsequent  pe- 
riod.  By  his  execrable  attempt  to  betray  the  all-important  mil- 
itary post  of  West  Point,  its  garrison,  and,  it  is  believed,  the 
person  of  Washington  himself,  and,  with  these,  the  last  hopes  of 
his  country,  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  he  covered  his  name 
with  mfamy,  and  obliterated  all  remembrance  of  his  glorious 
deeds. — Am.  Ed. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH. 


i221 


nim  unable  to  keep  up  more  than  an  imperfect 
blockade,  at  the  distance  of  three  miles.  In  April, 
1776,  his  place  was  taken  by  General  Wctoster,  who 
brouglit  a  re-enforcement,  and  made  some  fresh  at- 
tempts, but  without  success.  Early  in  May  several 
vessels  arrived  from  England  with  troops  and  sup- 
plies, on  which  the  enemy  raised  the  siege  and  fell 
back  upon  Montreal.  Thence  they  were  driven 
from  post  to  post,  till,  on  the  18th  June,  they  finally 
evacuated  the  province,  on  which  they  never  made 
any  farther  attempt.* 

This  long  war  terminated  in  1783,  by  the  inde- 
pendence of  all  the  colonies  which  had  united 
against  Britain.  The  issue,  unfavourable,  or,  at 
least,  mortifying  to  the  mother  country,  was  attend- 
ed with  considerable  advantages  to  Canada ;  for  a 
large  body  of  loyalists,  expatriated  on  account  of 
their  political  principles,  sought  refuge  in  her  terri- 
tory. They  received  liberal  grants  of  land,  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  that  prosperity  which  has 
since  so  eminently  distinguished  the  upper  province. 

The  country  continued  for  some  years  in  a  state 
of  progressive  advancement,  being  only  agitated  by 
the  desire,  sometimes  strongly  expressed,  of  obtain- 
ing a  representative  government.  In  1790,  Mr.  Pitt 
determined  to  grant  this  boon  on  a  basis  nearly  re- 
sembling that  of  the  British  Constitution.  As  a  pre- 
liminary, it  was  resolved  to  divide  Canada  into  two 
governments,  Upper  and  Lower:  and  it  is  somewhat 
remarkable,  that  this  arrangement,  so  much  depre- 
cated by  the  present  loyalist  party,  originated  with 
the  minister,  who  carried  it  through  in  the  face  of 
strong  opposition  from  Fox  and  other  Whig  mem- 
bers. He  considered  that  the  attempt  to  unite  two 
classes  of  population,  so  different  in  origin,  lan- 
guage, and  manners,  would  evidently  lead  to  disu- 
nion and  dissension;  while  they  argued    that  this 

*  Hawkins's  Picture  of  Quebec,  p.  424-434,  438-  Hinton, 
*oL  v.,  p.  344. 


22  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

union  would  afford  the  best  means  of  harmonizing 
them  into  one  social  system.  Another  question 
arose  wiih  regard  to  the  constitution  of  the  legisla- 
tive council.  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  to  form  it  of  an 
hereditary  noblesse,  to  be  created  for  the  purpose, 
and  to  include  the  more  respectable  French  seign- 
eurs. Mr.  Fox  recommended  a  representative  coun- 
cil, or,  in  default  of  this,  one  composed  of  members 
chosen  by  the  king  for  life.  This  last  suggestion, 
though  not  at  first  well  received  by  the  premier, 
was  the  plan  ultimately  adopted. 

The  first  House  of  Assembly,  consisting  of  fifty 
members,  was  opened  in  1792  by  Lieutenant-gov- 
ernor Clarke.  Their  proceedings  were  for  some 
time  of  no  great  importance.  In  1797,  Lord  Dor- 
chester, who  had  been  governor  since  1786,  was 
succeeded  by  General  Prescott.  Loud  complaints 
were  soon  afterward  made  respecting  the  granting 
of  lands,  the  board  for  that  purpose  having  appro- 
priated large  districts  to  themselves,  and  thereby 
obstructed  the  general  settlement  of  the  country. 
In  1800  Sir  Robert  S.  Milnes  was  appointed  lieuten- 
ant-governor. In  1803  a  decision  of  the  chief-jus- 
tice of  Montreal  declared  slavery  inconsistent  with 
the  laws  of  the  country,  and  the  few  individuals  in 
that  condition  received  a  grant  of  freedom.  In  1807, 
apprehensions  being  felt  of  war  with  America,  Sir 
James  Craig,  an  officer  of  distinction,  was  sent  out 
to  superintend  the  affairs  of  the  colony. 

About  this  time  began  those  internal  dissensions 
which  have  since  so  generally  agitated  the  colony. 
The  House  of  Assembly,  though  meeting  regularly, 
do  not  seem  previously  to  have  aimed  at  the  exer- 
cise of  any  high  powers,  or  to  have  obstructed  the 
governor  in  the  discretionary  exercise  of  his  author- 
ity. But  at  this  epoch  they  appear  to  have  formed 
the  design  of  rendering  themselves  independent, 
and  even  of  controlling  the  executive.  With  the 
former  view  they  demanded  that  the  judges  should 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  223 

be  expelled  from  their  body,  as  being  dependant 
upon  and  removable  by  government.  To  gain  the 
latter  object,  they  offered  to  defray  from  the  funds 
of  the  colony  the  whole  expense  of  the  civil  admin- 
istration. Although  this  was  a  boon,  and  unasked 
for,  yet,  on  account  of  its  apprehended  purpose,  it 
was  rt'pelled  with  indignation,  and  the  assembly 
soon  afterward  dissolved.  The  novel  exercise  of  a 
free  press  by  a  newspaper  called  "  the  Canadian," 
in  attacking  the  measures  of  government,  was  se- 
verely checked;  the  printer  was  sent  to  prison,  and 
all  his  materials  destroyed.  Six  individuals  were 
also  taken  into  custody,  though  never  brought  to 
trial.  These  proceedings  gave  lo  this  period  the 
appellation  of  the  "  Reign  of  Terror.* 

in  1811  a  new  Assembly  was  called,  which  did 
not  show  itself  more  compliant.  In  the  autumn  ot 
that  year,  however,  Sir  George  Prevost,  a  n!)re 
popular  governor,  assumed  the  rems  of  administra- 
tion ;  and  circumstances  soon  after  occurred  which 
induced  the  Canadians  to  suspend  their  complaints, 
and  to  make  displays  of  loyally  as  ardent  as  if  they 
had  never  been  dissatisfied. 

The  war  commenced  by  the  United  States  against 
Britain  in  1812  produced  a  formidable  crisis  in  the 
history  of  Canada,  especially  of  the  upper  province 
It  is  not  proposed  to  enter  into  any  discussion  of 
the  grounds  or  merits  of  the  hostile  resolution  adopt- 
ed by  Congress. f     Doubtless,  however,  as  Britain 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  443,  445.  M'Gregor,  vol.  ii.,  p.  391. 
Roebuck  on  Existing  Difficulties  in  the  Administration  of  the 
Canadas  (London,  1836),  p  6. 

t  From  the  treaty  of  1783,  acknowledging  the  independence 
other  former  colonies,  the  policy  of  Great  Britain  towards  the 
United  States  was  but  little  worthy  of  a  great  and  magnanimous 
nation.  She  persisted  for  several  years  in  keeping  possession 
of  the  western  military  posts,  in  direct  violation  of  the  stipula- 
tions of  that  treaty  ;  exercising  by  this  means  a  widelv  extended 
influence  over  the  Indian  trilies,  to  the  great  iniury  of  our  fron 
tier  settlements.     By  reviving  thn  iniquitous  rule  of  1756,  which 


224  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

then  stood,  with  her  whole  disposable  force  en- 
gaged against  Napoleon,  they  calculated  with  con- 
fidence on  obtaining  possession  of  the  Canadas,  i( 
not  of  all  British  America.  A  similar  impression 
prevailed  in  the  colony  itself,  defended  then  by  only 
4500  troops,  of  whom  not  more  than  1450  were  in 
the  upper  province,  though  the  most  exposed,  and 
presenting  the  most  extended  frontier.  Not  a  few 
were  inchned  on  the  first  alarm  to  pack  up  and  quit 

goes  in  effect  to  deny  to  the  neutral  all  trade  not  enjoyed  bv  the 
belligerant,  she  greatly  crip()led  and  distressed  our  rising  com- 
merce. By  her  orders  in  council  of  November,  1793,  her  armed 
ships  were  authorized  to  make  prize  of  ail  neutral  vessels  hav 
ing  on  board  the  produce  of  the  colonies  of  Frence,  or  carrying 
provisions  or  supplies  to  the  same;  and  this  \n  the  absence  o! 
any  blockade  of  the  ports  of  such  colonies.  Notwithstanding 
the  treaty  concluded  by  Mr.  Jay  in  1794,  with  the  object  of  af 
fording  some  protection  to  American  inieresis,  these  obnoxious 
orders,  in  place  of  being  permanently  repealed,  were  merely 
modified  somewhat  in  their  effects,  by  the  substitution  of  others 
scarcely  less  objectionable,  in  1795  and  1798.  In  1806  she  in- 
terdicted all  neutral  commerce  with  France  and  her  dependances, 
by  merely  a  paper  blockade.  Subjected  to  such  sweeping  an- 
noyances from  one  of  the  great  belligerants,  and  exposed  tovexa 
tions  equally  ruinous  at  the  hands  of  the  other,  there  was  no 
longer  the  smallest  security  for  the  peaceful  prosecution  of  com- 
mercial enterprises,  and  our  merchant  ships  could  scarcely  move 
upon  the  ocean  but  at  the  imminent  hazard  of  capture  and  con- 
fiscation But  the  abuse  which  most  strongly  excited  the  indig- 
nant feelings  of  the  nation,  as  being  more  aggravated  and  mtol- 
erable  than  any  other,  was  the  practice  of  British  naval  ofKceis 
boarding  our  ships  on  the  high  seas,  and  forcibly  taking  from  thern 
the  seamen  by  which  they  were  navigated,  under  the  pretence 
of  their  being  British  subjects.  Thus  the  American  sailor  found 
no  protection  afforded  to  him  by  his  national  flag,  but  might  at 
any  time  be  seized  and  transported  on  board  a  British  ship-of- 
war,  there  to  be  detained,  he  knew  not  for  what  length  of  time, 
m  a  state  of  odious  and  oppressive  servitude.  If  to  this  list  of 
grievances  be  added  the  outrageous  attack  upon  the  fng;ite 
Chesapeake  by  a  British  squadron  at  a  time  of  peace,  and  with- 
in the  American  vaters,  and  the  crowning  fact  that  no  endeav- 
ours of  the  Amerxan  government  were  of  the  slightest  avail  in 
ot)taining  either  redress  for  the  past  or  security  for  the  future, 
the  reader  will  be  able  to  perceive  the  causes  by  which  this  war 
iwas  provoked. — Am.  Ed. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  225 

the  country ;  but  Sir  George  Prevost,  seconded  b> 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  adopted  a  more 
spirited  resolution.  The  niihtia  were  called  out; 
Quebec  was  garrisoned  by  tlie  citizens ;  and  the 
frontier  placed  in  a  state  of  defence.* 

The  States,  though  they  had  resorted  to  hostilities 
with  such  sanguine  anticipations,  were  by  no  means 
in  a  forward  state  of  preparation.  Few  of  the  of- 
ficers who  had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  war 
of  independence  survived  the  lapse  of  nearly  thirty 
years. t  General  Hull,  however,  one  of  these  veter- 
ans, was  sent  with  a  force  of  2500  men  to  open  the 
campaign  on  the  western  frontier  of  Upper  Canada.! 
On  the  5th  of  July,  1812,  he  arrived  at  Detroit,  and 
on  the  12th  crossed  the  river  and  took  possession  of 
Sandwich,  whence  he  issued  a  proclamation  invi- 
ting the  colonists  to  join  him,  or,  at  least,  to  remain 
neutral.  Having  no  cannon  mounted,  he  did  not 
think  it  practicable  to  attack  Fort  Maiden,  which 
covered  Ainherstburg,  where  Lieutenant-colonel  St. 
George  with  his  small  force  was  posted.  Hull,  how- 
ever, pushed  forward  detachments  into  the  country, 
which  gained  some  advantages  and  induced  a  few  of 
the  inhabitants  to  join  them.  But  his  prospects 
were  soon  clouded.  Captain  Roberts,  with  a  small 
detachment,  had  early  reduced  the  Fort  of  Michilli- 
mackinac,^  which  "  opened  upon  him  the  northern 

*  Montgomery  Martin's  History  of  the  British  Colonies  (5 
vols.  8vo,  London,  1834),  vol.  lii.,  p.  188. 

t  Carey  and  Lea,  Geography,  &c.,  of  America  (Svo,  London, 
182.3),  p.  59. 

}  This  force  consisted  of  about  an  equal  number  of  regular 
troops  and  of  volunteers  from  the  State  of  Ohio.— .^wi.  Ed. 

^  Lieut.  Hanks,  who  held  this  important  post  with  a  garrison 
of  only  fifty-six  men,  had,  by  some  unaccountable  negligence, 
received  no  information  of  the  war,  and  was  first  apprized  of  its 
existence  by  the  appearance  of  a  hostile  force,  and  a  summons 
from  its  commander  to  surrender  the  place.  The  great  superior- 
Jty  ol  the  enemy,  whose  force,  consisting  of  regulars  and  Indians, 
was  nine  hundred  strong,  left  no  alternative  to  the  American 


226  HISTORY    OP    CANADA 

hive  of  Indians."  Almost  the  whole  of  that  race 
eagerly  esponsed  the  British  cause,  and  poured  in 
from  every  quarter  to  support  it.  Meantime,  Gen- 
eral Brock,  having  embarked  all  the  troops  that  could 
be  spared  from  the  Niagara  frontier,  arrived  on  the 
12th  August  at  Amherstburg,  where  he  mustered 
about  330  regulars,  400  militia,  and  600  Indians. 
Hull,  whose  force,  weakened  by  sickness  and  by 
sending  away  two  detachments,  is  said  not  to  have 
exceeded  800  effective  men,  retreated  across  the 
river,  withdrawing  the  cannon  prepared  for  the 
siege  of  Amherstburg,  and  shut  himself  up  in  De 
troit.  General  Brock  instantly  crossed,  advanced 
upon  the  fort,  and  prepared  for  an  immediate  as- 
sault ;  but  a  white  flag  then  appeared  from  the  walls, 
and  a  capitulation  was  quickly  signed,  by  which  the 
whole  American  force,  including  the  detachments, 
were  surrendered  prisoners  of  war.  Loud  com- 
plaints were  made  by  the  Americans  against  the 
conduct  of  Hull,*  who  was  afterward  tried  and  con- 
commander  but  to  capitulate  at  once  on  the  most  honourable 
terms  he  could  obtain. — Am.  Ed. 

*  That  the  conduct  of  General  Hull  was  most  extraordinary 
throughout  this  brief  and  disastrous  campaign,  there  can  be 
little  doubt.  Of  the  effective  character  of  the  troops  under  hia 
command  we  have  the  most  satisfactory  evidence,  in  the  spirit 
and  gallantry  which  they  uniformly  displayed  whenever  they 
were  called  to  face  the  enemy.  A  detachment  under  Major 
Vanhorn  had  bravely  and  successfully  defended  itself  against 
a  greatly  superior  force  ;  and  Col.  Miller,  at  the  head  of  three 
hundred  soldiers  of  the  gallant  forty-fourth  regiment,  so  distin- 
guished for  its  valour  at  Tippecanoe,  had  completely  routed  a 
body  of  seven  hundred  British  and  Indians.  Had  Hull  pushed 
on  against  Maiden  with  his  mtrepid  little  army  immediately 
after  his  arrival  in  Canada,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  he 
would  have  carried  the  place  by  a  coup-de-main,  such  was  the 
ardour  of  his  troops.  By  neglecting  to  do  this,  he  had  afforded 
opportunity  to  the  enemy  greatly  to  strengthen  his  defences ; 
still,  by  the  first  of  August,  he  was  provided  with  a  sufficient 
battering  train  to  enable  him  to  attack  the  fort  in  form.  A  coun 
cil  of  war  was  accordingly  held,  and  it  was  resolved  that  this 
•hould  immediately  be  done.    The  general  in  command  sane- 


UNDER    THE   BRITISH.  227 

demned  to  be  shot,  though  spared  on  account  of  his 
age  and  former  services.* 

The  Americans  made  great  efforts  to  obtain  a 
more  fortunate  result  on  the  Niagara  frontier.  Ear- 
y  in  September  more  than  6000  men  were  brought 
to  the  banks  of  the  river,  with  the  view  of  crossing 
it  and  penetrating  into  Canada.  They  were  encour- 
aged by  the  exploit  of  two  row-boats,  which  cap- 
tured the  same  number  of  British  gun-brigs,  with 

tioned  the  decision,  the  cannon  were  embarked,  the  time  ap- 
pointed, and  everything  prepared  for  the  army  to  advance; 
when,  to  its  utter  astonishment,  without  the  slightest  change 
of  circumstances,  or  any  apparent  cause  whatever,  instead  of 
moving  against  the  enemy,  they  received  orders  to  retreat  with- 
out delay  to  the  American  side,  and  thus  to  abandon  even  such 
advantages  as  they  had  already  obtained.  This  movement  waa 
executed  not  without  excitmg  the  utmost  indignation  both  in 
the  officers  and  men.  As  the  Americans  retired,  the  British 
assumed  the  offensive,  and  advanced.  They  commenced  their 
operations  by  erecting  batteries  on  the  opposite  shore  to  Detroit. 
Their  next  step  was  to  despatch  a  flag  of  truce  to  the  Ameri- 
can commander,  very  modestly  demanding,  before  a  gun  had 
been  fired,  the  surrender  of  his  position,  and  of  the  force  under 
his  command.  The  reply  returned  was,  that  the  place  would  be 
defended  to  the  last  extremity.  This  was  followed  by  an  inef- 
fectual bombardment  from  either  side.  On  the  morning  of  the 
16th  the  British  army  was  suffered  to  land  without  opposition 
on  the  American  shore  ;  they  advanced  immediately  upon 
Detroit ;  the  American  troops  were  posted  most  advantageously 
to  receive  them ;  everything  appeared  to  promise  an  easy  vie 
'tory ;  when,  just  before  the  approaching  clamour  of  the  enemy 
had  come  within  the  range  of  the  American  artillery,  orders 
were  received  not  to  fire ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  troops  post- 
ed in  the  town  were  commanded  to  retire  to  the  fort.  A  white 
flag,  in  token  of  submission,  was  hung  out  upon  the  walls,  and 
an  unconditional  surrender  was  immediately  agreed  to,  not  only 
of  the  fort  and  garrison,  but  of  the  entire  military  district,  with 
all  the  troops  within  the  American  general's  command.  Thus 
terminated  this  most  hiunrlialing and  calamitous  affair;  and  the 
reader  may  judge  whether  there  were  not  good  grounds  for  at 
least  some  of  the  weighty  charges  preferred  against  the  Ameri- 
can commander.— ^?«.  Kd. 

*  James,  vol.  i.,  p.  56-.58,  374-376,  72,  73.  Martin,  vol.  iii., 
p.  189.  Brackenridge's  History  of  the  late  War  (12mo,  6th  edi- 
tion, Philadelphia,  1836),  p.  32-41. 


Ji28  HISTORY    OP    CANADA 

valuable  cargoes,  as  they  were  passing  Fort  Eria 
The  troops  are  represented  as  filled  with  enthusias* 
tic  confidence,  urging  and  almost  compelling  Gener- 
^l  Van  Rensselaer,  their  commander,  to  commence 
active  operations.  Accordingly,  he  succeeded,  oa 
the  morning  of  13th  October,  in  pushing  across  to 
Queenston  a  detachment,  which,  being  well  re-en- 
forced, gained  possession  of  the  heights.  General 
Brock  having  come  up,  resolved  to  check  their 
progress;  but,  making  his  advance  with  too  small 
force,  he  was  repulsed  and  killed,  closing  his  brill- 
iant career  by  a  glorious  death.  Meantime  Gen- 
eral SheaflTe,  having  brought  up  the  main  force  of 
the  British  from  Fort  George,  and  being  joined  by 
a  body  of  Indians,  with  a  detachment  from  Chippe- 
vvay,  attacked  the  enemy ;  and,  after  a  sharp  con- 
test of  half  an  hour,  compelled  the  whole,  amount- 
ing to  above  900,  to  surrender  at  discretion.* 

The  Americans  made  yet  another  attempt  to  re- 
trieve this  unfortunate  campaign.  General  Smyth, 
who  succeeded  Van  Rensselaer,  had  assembled  on 
the  27th  November  4500  men  in  the  vicinity  of 
Black  Rock.  Early  on  the  following  morning,  two 
detachments  succeeded  in  crossing,  and,  after  a  long 
and  confused  fight  in  the  dark,  drove  in  with  loss 


♦  Notwithstanding  the  unfortunate  result  of  the  battle  of 
jueenston,  attribntaole  to  the  refusal  of  the  militia  to  cross 
over  to  the  support  of  the  detachn.ent  on  the  Canada  shore, 
it  was  undoubtedly,  as  it  regards  the  troops  engaged,  a  very  gal- 
lant affair.  The  whole  American  force  did  not  much  exceed 
1000  men,  of  which  not  more  than  300  were  regulars;  whereas, 
from  the  commencement  of  the  action,  they  were  opposed  to 
superior  numbers,  afterward  re-enforced  by  600  regular  troops 
under  General  Brock,  and  still  later  in  the  day  by  a  detachment 
of  800  strong  under  General  Sheaffe,  nearly  all  regular  troops. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  Americans  bravely  defended  the 
ground  they  had  won,  against  reiterated  attacks,  from  an  early 
hour  in  the  morning  to  5  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  ;  nor  did  they 
finally  yield  until  there  was  no  longer  any  hope  of  their  being 
sustained  by  re-enforcements  from  the  other  side. — Am.  B4. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  229 

the  British  outposts  ;*  but  when  day  broke,  and 
Lieutenant-colonel  Bisshopp  had  collected  about  600 
regulars  and  militia,  they  hastily  retired  to  the  other 
side,  leaving  a  party  of  thirty  to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  English.  Another  division  began  to  cross, 
but  some  rounds  of  musketry  and  artillery  induced 
them  to  return.  In  the  course  of  tlie  day,  after  a 
vain  summons  to  surrender  Fort  Erie,  nearly  half 
the  force  was  embarited,  though  in  the  afternoon 
the  postponement  of  the  enterprise  was  announced. 
After  several  days  of  uncertain  councils,  it  was 
finally  decided  that  the  expedition  should  be  aban- 
doned for  the  season.! 

The  severity  of  the  season  caused  a  suspension 
of  operations  scarcely  interrupted  unless  by  an  at- 
tack on  Ogdensburgh  by  Captain  M'Donnell,  who, 
crossing  the  St.  Lawrence  on  the  ice,  drove  out  the 
garrison,  and  obtained  possession  of  eleven  pieces 
of  cannon  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  stores. J 
The  Americans,  meantime,  were  making  extraordi- 
nary exertions  to  open  the  new  campaign.  At 
Sackett's  Harbour,  on  the  southern  shore  of  Onta- 
rio, a  naval  armament  was  equipped,  which  gave 
them  for  some  time  the  control  of  that  fine  lake 
A  large  force  had  been  assembled  and  placed  under 
a  new  commander,  General  Dearborn.  The  plan  of 
this  campaign  was  limited  to  the  conquest  of  Upper 
Canada,  the  achievement  of  which,  as  that  country 
was  defended  by  only  2100  regular  troops,  was  con- 
sidered beyond  the  reach  of  chance.     On  the  25th 

*  These  detachments  the  American  accounts  slate  to  have 
been  entirely  successful  in  occupying  the  enemy's  works  and 
spiking  their  cannon  ;  and  thai  here,  agam,  the  failure  of  timely 
re-enforcements  alone  prevented  a  complete  triumph. — Am.  Ed. 

t  James,  vol.  i.,  p.  81,  376,  377,  382-384.  Brackenridge,  p. 
65-69. 

t  This  place  was  defended  by  a  small  militia  force  hastily 
raised  under  Col.  Benedict,  who  conducted  themselves  with 
great  gallantry,  but  could  not  successfully  res'st  the  British  de 
tachment,  which  was  twelve  hundred  strong.— Am.  Ed. 
I. — S 


230  HISTORY    OF    CANADA. 

April,  1813,  the  general,  with  Commodore  Chauncey, 
embarlted  about  2000  men,  and  sailed  to  York  (To- 
ronto), the  rising  capital  of  the  province.  It  was 
then  very  ill  prepared  for  resistance,  scarcely  at  all 
fortified,  and  defended  by  General  Sheaffe  with  only 
about  600  men.*  On  the  morning  of  the  27th  they 
reached  the  place  and  succeeded  in  landing,  when, 
after  a  brave  defence,  protracted  till  two  o'clock,  the 
English  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  town.  The 
invaders  suffered  chiefly  by  the  explosion  of  a  mine, 
which  killed  or  wounded  about  260,  including  among 
the  former  General  Pike,  a  young  officer  of  distin- 
guished merit,  who  had  planned  and  conducted  the 
attack. t  After  burning  all  the  public  buildings,  they 
carried  off  the  artillery  and  naval  stores,  and  by  the 
1st  of  May  evacuated  the  place. J 

The  next  enterprise  was  still  more  important, 
being  directed  against  Fort  George,  near  Newark, 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Niagara  channel,  considered 
the  chief  military  position  in  the  country.  Nearly 
the  whole  force  was  employed,  a  small  part  only 
being  left  to  defend  Sackett's  Harbour.  Brigadier- 
general  Vincent,  on  the  other  hand,  had  only  a  Brit- 
ish detachment  of  about  1000  regulars  and  300  mili- 
tia ;  and  Newark  had  been  exposed  to  so  severe  a 
fire  from  the  American  fort  on  the  opposite  side, 
that  it  was  no  longer  defensible.  The  enemy,  there- 
fore, could  be  resisted  only  by  opposmg  his  land- 
ing, or  by  beating  him  afterward  in  the  field.    Wheu 

*  By  the  American  -"^counts,  the  British  force  in  this  action 
is  stated  to  have  heen  i  lout  1000  regular  troops  and  milit'^i, 
and  half  that  number  ol  Indians.  The  number  of  prisoners 
alone  was  550. 

t  The  firmg  of  this  mine  was  undoubtedly  a  most  barbarous 
and  unjustifiable  act  on  the  part  of  the  British.  Their  defeat 
was  already  inevitable,  and  they  knew  the  explosion  could  not 
■fleet  the  result.  It  was.  therefore,  a  wanton  destruction  of  life, 
as  cowardly  as  it  was  cruel,  without  any  expectation  of  benefit 
to  themselves.  — yl?«.  Ed. 

t  James,  p.  136-149,397-406.    Brackenridge,  p.  102--105 


UNDEP      i'ilE    BRITISH.  231 

Commodore  Chauncey,  oq  the  27th  May,  disembark- 
ed 4000  men  under  Dearborn  and  Lewis,  both  these 
operations  were  attempted  ;  but,  after  a  long  and  se- 
vere contest,  were  rendered  unavailing  by  the  supe- 
rior numbers  of  the  invaders.*  Vincent  was  obli- 
ged, after  calling  in  the  garrisons  of  Chippeway  and 
Fort  Erie,  to  retreat  first  to  the  Beaver  Dams,  and 
then  to  Burlington  Heights,  near  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  Lake  Ontario.  The  victors  could  not  in- 
tercept his  retreat,  but  they  established  for  the  first 
time  a  regular  lodgment  in  Canada.f 

Meantime  a  respectable  naval  force  having  been 
organized  at  Kingston  by  Sir  James  Yeo,  Sir  Georgo 
Prevost,  the  governor,  was  prevailed  upon  to  employ 
it  in  the  attack  of  Sackett's  Harbour,  defended  only 
by  a  small  party,  while  the  main  body  of  the  enemy 
was  employed  against  Fort  George.  He  sailed  on 
the  27th  of  May,  with  about  750  men ;  but,  on  ap- 
proaching, showed  considerable  hesitation,  and  even 
gave  orders  for  a  return  to  Kingston,  till,  encouraged 
by  the  success  of  the  Indians  in  capturing  twelve 
boats  with  seventy  dragoons,  he  succeeded  in  effect- 
ing a  landing  on  the  morning  of  the  29th.  Notwith- 
standing the  difficulties  of  the  ground,  he  drove  the 
enemy  before  him,  till  they  took  shelter  in  a  log-bar- 
rack and  stockaded  fort.  Thence  they  kept  up  such 
a  destructive  fire,  that  General  Prevost,  considering 
it  impossible  to  force  the  position,  and  panic-struck, 
it  is  said,  by  a  false  alarm  raised  by  General  Brown 
in  his  rear,  ordered  a  retreat.  Much  difference  of 
opinion,  however,  prevailed  among  the  officers. 
Major  Drummond  is  reported  to  have  said :  *'  A  few 

*  The  only  part  of  the  American  army  really  engaged  in  this 
action  was  the  advanced  corps  under  Col.  Scott,  and  part  of  the 
brigade  of  General  Boyd,  united,  both  numerically  inferior  to 
the  enemy.  The  victory  was  complete,  and  the  prisoners  alone 
exceeded  600. — Am.  Ed. 

+  James,  vol.  i.,  p  151  -164,  407--412.     Brackenridge,  p.  108- 
U2. 


232  HIS-rORY    OF    CANADA 

minutes,  sir,  and  I  will  put  you  in  possession  of  the 
place."  He  was  ordered  to  ohej' ;  upon  which  dis- 
content and  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  commander- 
in-chief  became  general,  and  had  a  most  injurious 
effect  on  the  subsequent  operations.* 

Fortune,  so  favourable  to  the  Americans  at  the 
opening  of  the  campaign,  did  not  continue  so 
throughout.  Extraordinary  exertions  were  made 
in  the  western  states,  particularly  Kentucky.  Two 
corps  were  formed,  and  despatched  under  Generals 
Winchester  and  Harrison,  to  march  in  different  lines 
through  Michigan  ;  then  to  unite  and  co-operate  in 
recovering  Detroit,  and  invading  the  adjoining  dis- 
tricts. Winchester,  suspected  of  a  desire  to  achieve 
something  before  yielding  his  command  to  his  co- 
adjutor, advanced  with  about  1000  men  to  French- 
town,  within  twenty-six  miles  of  Detroit.  Colonel 
Proctor,  justly  appreciating  the  importance  of  at- 
tacking him  before  the  junction,  hastily  collected 
all  the  force  within  his  reach,  amounting  to  about 
500  whites  and  450  Indians.  With  these,  on  the 
22d  January,  1813,  he  succeeded  in  bringing  the  en- 
emy to  action.  They  made  an  obstinate  resistance, 
and  being  posted  in  houses  and  enclosures,  caused 
considerable  loss  to  the  assailants :  but  they  were 
ultimately  overpowered,  and  nearly  all  made  prison- 
ers.    The  general  himself  was  among  the  number.-f 

♦  James,  vol.  i.,  p.  165--176,  413-416. 

t  The  battle  of  the  river  Raisin  was  gallantly  fought  by  th« 
Americans.  Their  little  army  consisted  of  only  7.50  men,  nearly 
all  volunteers  from  Kentucky,  while  the  enemy's  force  was  twice 
that  number,  mcluding  regular  troops  and  Indians.  The  most 
shocking  barbarity  was  practised  by  the  savages  after  the  ac- 
tion. The  remnant  of  these  brave  volunteers,  among  whonu 
were  many  of  the  most  distinguished  and  respectable  citizens 
of  Kentucky,  when  there  was  no  longer  any  hope  of  successful 
resistance,  had  capitulated  on  the  condition  that  they  should 
be  protected  against  the  Indians.  This  stipulation,  however, 
■was  not  fulfilled.  Scarcely  had  these  gallant  men  given  up 
their  arms,  when  a  dreadful  scene  commenced.  The  wounded 
were  scalped  and  stripped,  the  dead  shockingly  mutilated,  and 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  233 

General  Harrison,  on  receiving    intelligence   of 
his  disaster,  took  up  a  position  near  the  rapids  of 
Miami  to  await  re-enforcements.     Colonel  Proctor 
felt  equally  the  importance  of  attacking  him  before 
their  arrival.    Having  assembled  about  1000  regulars 
and  militia  and  1200  Indians,  he  embarked  them  at 
Amherstburg  on  the  23d  April,  then  sailed  across 
Lake  Erie,  and  up  the  Miami.     Many  delays,  how-  \ 
ever,  occurred,  by  which  the  enemy  was  enabled  so 
to  strengthen  his  position,  that  the  attack  made  on 
the  1st  of  May  had  very  little  effect.     The  Ameri- 
cans were  then  encouraged  to  assume  the  offensive, 
which  they  did  with  large  bodies  of  troops,  partly 
landed  from  the  river,  partly  sallying  from  the  fort. 
At  first  they  gained  possession  of  the  British  batter- 
ies  ;  but  they  were  then  attacked  at  different  points 
with  such  decisive  success,  that  upward  of  a  thou- 
sand were  killed  or  taken,  and  the  rest  with  difficul- 
ty found  refuge  within  the  intrenchments.*     These 
Proctor  found  himself  still  unable  to  storm ;  but  he 
had  so  weakened  the  enemy's  force  as  to  remove 
all  immediate  danger  of  invasion.! 

Let  us  now  return  to  the  main  theatre  of  opera- 
tions on  the  Niagara  frontiei,  where  we  have  seen 

an  infliscriminate  massacre  of  the  prisoners  took  place.  Out  of 
the  450  who  had  surrendered,  a  comparatively  small  number 
only  escaped. — Ain.  Ed. 

*  The  force  brought  by  Proctor  to  the  attack  of  Fort  Meigs 
is  stated  in  the  American  accounts  to  have  been  550  regulars, 
800  militia,  and  1500  Indians.  The  American  garrison  consist- 
ed  of  1200  men,  principally  volunteers,  and  in  the  sortie  against 
the  enemy's  works  they  were  supported  by  a  detachment  from 
the  corps  under  General  Clay,  amountmg  to  800  men,  also  voj- 
Bnteers.  The  principal  loss  sustained  by  the  Americans  was 
owing  to  their  ton  great  impetuosity  m  pursuing  the  enemy,  by 
■which  means  they  were  drawn  into  an  ambuscade,  and  attacked 
on  all  sides  by  a  savage  force  greatly  outnumbering  their  own. 
The  abandonment  of  the  siege,  and  the  retreat  of  the  enemy, 
•re  the  best  evidence  of  tiie  prowess  of  the  American  troops.— 
Xm.  Ed. 

t  James,  vol.  i.,  p.  194-201 ,  426-428.    Brackenridge,  p.  96-98. 

U3 


234  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

the  British  driven  before  the  enemy  to  Burling- 
ton Heights.  Dearborn  immediately  sent  forward 
Generals  Chandler  and  Winder,  with  4000  men,  to 
destroy,  if  possible,  this  shattered  remnant ;  a  suc- 
cess which  would  have  been  followed  by  the  con- 
quest of  all  the  western  provinces.  On  the  fifth  of 
June  they  took  post  at  Stony  Creek,  to  prepare  for 
operations  on  the  following  day.  In  this  critical 
situation.  Lieutenant-colonel  Harvey,  having  care- 
fully reconnoitred  the  enemy's  position,  suggested 
a  night  attack,  to  which  General  Vincent  readily  as- 
sented. It  was  made  with  700  chosen  troops,  and, 
being  favoured  by  deep  darkness,  was  completely 
successful ;  the  two  commanders,  with  seven  offi- 
cers and  116  men,  were  made  prisoners.  The  Brit- 
ish at  daylight  withdrew  their  small  force ;  and  the 
Americans  contended,  that,  but  for  the  capture  of 
the  two  generals,  the  advantage  was  all  on  their 
side.  Their  loss,  indeed,  had  not  been  great ;  yet 
such  was  the  impression  made  by  the  events  of  the 
night,  that,  before  eleven  next  morning,  they  had 
commenced  a  retreat  to  Forty-mile  Creek,  eleven 
miles  distant.*  Here  they  received  a  re-enforce- 
ment ;  but,  being  threatened  by  Sir  James  Yeo,  who 
had  come  with  a  squadron  and  a  small  body  of 
troops  to  support  General  Vincent,  they  determin- 
ed on  retreating  to  Niagara.  Intelligence  being  re- 
ceived by  the  American  commander  that  the  Eng- 
lish had  a  small  advanced  post  at  Beaver-dam,  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel Boerstler,  with  about  700  men,  was 
sent  to  attack  it.  That  officer,  however,  being  un- 
expectedly assailed,  first  by  a  party  of  Indians,  and 

♦  The  un'ted  corps  ol  Generals  Chandler  and  Winder  amount- 
ed to  about  2500  men.  The  capture  of  these  officers  is  to  be 
attributed  t(.  the  confusion  arising  from  the  darkness  of  the 
night,  and  the  consequent  difficulty  of  distinguishing  friend 
from  foe.  The  loss  of  the  Americans  was  150  in  killed,  wound- 
ed, ami  missing  ;  that  of  the  enemy  in  prisoners  alone  was  100 
—Am.  Ed. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  235 

soon  afterward  by  a  small  body  of  regulars,  con- 
ceived himself  to  be  surrounded,  and,  on  being  sum- 
moned by  Lieutenant  Fitzgibbon,  surrendered  his 
whole  corps  prisoners  of  war*  The  Americans 
now  held  nothing  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  be- 
yond Fort  George.  The  British  even  made  incur- 
sions on  the  opposite  shore,  in  one  of  which  Colo-- 
nel  Bisshopp  gained  possession  of  Black  Rock, 
where  he  destroyed  or  carried  off  the  arms  and 
stores;  but  being  attacked  while  re-embarking  by 
a  superior  force,  his  party  suffered  some  loss,  and 
he  himself  received  three  wounds,  which  proved 
mortal. t 

The  British  at  this  time  gained  some  advantages 
on  Lake  Chatnplain,  taking  several  vessels,  and  de- 
stroying the  American  magazines  at  Plattsburg 
and  Swanton.J  They  were  now,  however,  des- 
tined to  experience  severe  reverses,  and  that,  too, 
on  the  theatre  of  their  most  brilliant  triumphs. 

The  Americans  made  extraordinary  exertions  to 
retrieve  their  affairs  on  the  western  frontier;  vol- 
unteers crowded  from  Kentucky,  a  territory  of 
daring  and  warlike  habits,  and  by  September  they 
had  succeeded  in  augmenting  General  Harrison's 
army  to  upward  of  5000  men.  They  had  formed 
another  fortified  station  on  Sandusky  river,  which 
Major-general  Proctor,  without  success,  attempted 

♦  There  is  no  doubt  this  expedition  was  ill  judged,  and  with- 
out any  sufficient  object  to  have  rendered  it  expedient.  Still 
the  account  here  given  is  most  unjust  to  the  American  com- 
mander and  the  troops  under  '.ns  charge.  Tliey  made  a  most 
brave  resistance,  though  attacked  on  all  sides  by  a  greatly  supe 
rior  force  of  British  and  Indians  ;  nor  did  they  capitulate  until 
their  ammunition  was  all  but  exhausted,  and  one  third  of  theii 
number  either  killed  or  wounded.— .Am.  Ed. 

t  James,  vd..  i.,  p.  205-229,  431-442.     Brackenridge,  p.  IH 

119. 

X  The  magazines  were  the  private  warehouses  ol  the  citi 
zens,  whose  property  was  most  wantonly  plundered  and  d« 
stroyed. — Am.  Ed. 


236  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

to  reduce.*  A  squadron  of  nine  vessels,  mounting 
fifty-six  guns,  had  been  equipped  by  them  on  Lake 
Erfe,  and  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  one  able 
to  contend  with  it  could  be  fitted  out  by  the  Brit- 
ish, under  Captain  Barclay.  An  engagement  took 
place,  which  was  maintained  with  the  utmost  ob- 
stinacy ;  but  tlie  conflict  ended  in  the  defeat  and 
entire  surrender  of  the  English  squadron. f  J  This 
event  reduced  General  Proctor  to  extreme  distress, 
depriving  him  of  access  to  supplies  and  re-enforce- 
ments, while  his  stock  of  provisions  had  become 
quite  inadequate  for  his  own  troops  and  the  numer- 
ous Indians  who  had  joined  his  standard.  On  the 
arrival,  therefore,  in  the  end  of  September,  of  Gen- 
eral Harrison  at  Detroit,  he  did  not  attempt  to 
maintain  his  position  at  Amherstburg,  but  retreated 
up  the  river  Thames.  The  other  pursued  him 
closely  with  3500  troops,  while  Proctor  was  desert- 
ed by  most  of  his  Indians,  of  whom  he  had  now 
only  about  500,  with  800  whites.  At  the  Moravian 
town,  on  the  5th  of  October,  he  took  up  a  strong 
position,  flanked  by  the  river  on  one  side  and  a 
wood  on  the  other,  where  he  hoped  to  render  un- 
availing the  superior  numbers  of  the  enemy.  Har- 
rison, however,  had  with  him   a  body  of  combat- 

♦  The  defence  of  this  fort  was  one  of  the  most  gallant  affairs 
during  the  war.  The  American  garrison  consisted  of  only  160 
men,  under  the  command  of  Major  Croghan.  Their  works 
were  weak,  and  a  single  six-pounder  was  all  their  artillery. 
Proctor  assailed  it  with  a  force  of  500  regular  troops  and  700 
Indians,  and  was  repulsed  in  all  his  attempts  with  great  slaugh- 
ter.— Am.  Ed. 

i  The  American  squadron  in  this  action  consisted  of  nine 
vessels,  mounting  fifty-six  guns;  the  British,  of  six  vessels, 
mounting  sixty-nine  guns.  With  the  exception  of  the  Lawrence 
and  the  Niagara,  all  the  American  vessels  were  small,  whereas 
five  of  the  British  vessels  were  comparatively  large.  The  loss 
of  the  Americans  was  twenty-seven  killed  and  ninety-six  woand- 
ed  ;  'hat  of  the.  British,  two  hundred  in  killed  and  wounded,  and 
6ix  ^  undrp'^  nrisoners. — Am.  Ed. 

■^   i-^tsa,  »il.  i.,p.  263-274.    Ca-ey  and  Le*,  p.  62 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  237 

unts  yet  unknown  in  warfare,  the  Kentucky  mount- 
i!d  rirtemen,  accustomed  to  ride  through  ilie  woods, 
using  their  weapon  with  ahuost  preternatural  skill. 
Their  very  novelty,  he  justly  hoped,  would  make 
a  strong  impression.  Following  his  instructions, 
they  received  the  fire  of  their  opponents,  then  gal- 
loped forward,  and  in  a  few  minutes  completely 
broke  the  British  ranks,  spreading  among  them  a 
general  confusion.*  The  severest  conflict  was 
with  the  Indians,  who  lost  their  chief  Tecumseh, 
one  of  the  bravest  of  the  brave,  and  equally  dis- 
tinguished by  policy  and  eloquence.  The  main  ob- 
ject of  his  life  had  been  to  unite  his  followers  in  a 
grand  confederacy  against  the  Americans.  In  en- 
mity to  them,  he  had  warmly  attached  himself  to 
the  cause  of  the  British,  and  aided  them  in  succes- 
sive victories.  General  Proctor  retreated  to  An- 
caster,  where  he  could  rally  only  200  men,  with 
whom  he  joined  the  Niagara  army.  Harrison 
also,  having  thus  recovered  Michigan,  and  conquer- 
ed the  western  districts,  marched  to  re-enforce  his 
countrymen  in  that  quarter.f 

The  Americans  now  formed  a  plan  of  operations 
on  a  grander  scale,  directed  against  Montreal,  the 
success  of  which  would  have  placed  in  their  hands 
the  whole  of  Upper  Canada.  In  this  enterprise 
two  armies  were  destined  to  co-operate  ;  one,  con- 
sisting of  nearly  6000,  under  Major-general  Hamp- 
ton, from  Lake  Champlain  ;  the  other,  amounting  to 
8800,  under  Major-general  Wilkinson,  from  Grena- 
dier Island,  near  Sackett's  Harbour,  on  Lake  Onta- 
rio, As  the  city  was  defended  by  a  very  small  pro- 
portion of  the  regular  soldiers,  who  were  chiefly 

♦  The  British  force  in  this  action  is  no  doubt  much  underra- 
ted. The  Indians  alone  were,  according  to  the  American  ac- 
counts, from  1200  to  1500.  Six  hundred  regular  troops  wera 
among  the  prisoners. — Am.  Ed. 

t  James,  vol.  i.,  p.  276-298,  451-458.     Brackenridge,  p.  I4ft 
15G 


238  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

employed  in  the  upper  province,  Hampton  hoped, 
by  pushing  vigorously  forward,  to  capture  the  place 
with  little  difficulty.  But,  having  passed  the  frontier 
in  the  end  of  October,  he  found  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Chateauguay  the  advanced  corps  of  800  British, 
■with  172  Indians,  commanded  by  Lieutenant-colonels 
De  Salaberry  and  M'Donnell.  These  officers  posted 
their  troops  so  judiciously  amid  woods,  and  so  skil- 
fully concealed  the  smallness  of  their  number,  that 
the  enemy,  though  they  made  several  brisk  attacks, 
were  always  repulsed  ;  and  Hampton,  believing  him- 
self  opposed  by  a  large  force,  determined  to  retreat. 
Meantime,  the  larger  expedition  under  General 
"Wilkinson  having  crossed  Lake  Ontario,  entered 
the  river  Saint  Lawrence.  At  Williamsburg,  two 
considerable  detachments  were  landed,  in  order  at 
once  to  clear  the  banks  and  to  lighten  the  boats 
while  descending  the  rapids.  On  the  Uth  Novem- 
ber, one  of  these,  under  Major-general  Boyd,  en- 
countered Lieutenant-colonel  Morrison  with  an  infe- 
rior British  force.  A  very  obstinate  conflict  ensued, 
in  which  both  parties  claimed  the  victory.*  The 
result  was  not  such  as  to  prevent  the  Americans 
from  continuing  to  descend  the  river  towards  Mon- 
treal. Near  Cornwall  the  commander  received  de- 
spatches from  General  Hampton,  intimating  that  he 
declined  the  expected  co-operation,  and  intended 
to  fall  back  upon  Lake  Champlain.  W  ilkinson  then 
conceived  it  necessary  to  give  up  for  this  season 
any  attempt  upon  Montreal,  especially  as  he  found 
the  population  hostile  to  the  States,  and  attached  to 
the  British  government.  He  therefore  placed  his 
army  in  winter  quarters,  near  the  French  mills,  on 
the  Salmon  river,  where  he  formed  a  plan  for  at- 
tacking Prescott  and  Kingston  ;  but,  finding  himself 

*  In  point  of  numbers,  the  detachments  engaged  in  this  conflict 
were  probably  about  equal.  The  Americans  were  mostly  new 
recruits,  never  before  in  action,  while  the  British  force  cons'  sled 
•ntirely  of  veteran  troops. — Am.  Ed. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  238 

much  straitened  for  provisions,  was  induced  to  fall 
back  upon  Plaitsburg.* 

Meantiine,  the  employment  of  the  main  army  of 
the  Americans  in  this  unsuccessful  expedition  ena- 
bled their  opponents  to  resume  the  offensive  on  the 
Niagara  frontier.  On  the  first  intelligence  of  the 
disasters  sustained  in  the  west,  General  Vincent  had 
been  ordered  to  fall  back  upon  Kingston ;  but  he 
considered  that  circumstances  now  justified  him 
in  maintaining  his  position.  'I'he  enemy's  force  in 
this  quarter  had  been  greatly  reduced.  On  the  ad- 
vance of  a  strong  detachment  under  Colonel  Mur- 
ray, the  American  commander,  General  M'Clure, 
first  fell  back  upon  Fort  George,  tlien  abandoned 
that  post,  previous  to  which  he  reduced  the  adjoin- 
ing town  of  Newark  to  ashes. f  Murray  was  not 
content  with  pursuing  him  beyond  the  river  ;  he  al- 
so surprised  and  stormed  Fort  Niagara,  taking  above 
400  prisoners,  with  a  large  quantity  of  arms  and 
stores. I  The  English  afterward  surprised  and 
plundered  the  villages  of  Lewiston,  Black  Rock, 
and  Buffalo,  where  they  retaliated  not  very  consid- 
erately the  acts  of  M'Clure  at  Fort  George.^ 

Operations  were  recommenced  early  in  the 
spring  of  1814.     Lieutenant-colonel  Williams,  with 

♦  .lames,  p.  301--333,  347-350, 467-475.  Brackenridge,  p.  158 
-167. 

t  This  act  excited  great  indignation  in  the  United  States 
against  their  own  commander,  and  was  promptly  disavowed  by 
the  American  government. — Am.  Ed. 

X  The  garrison  of  this  place  consisted  of  about  300  men, 
mostly  invalids.  Capt.  Lewis,  the.  cominaniiing  officer,  was  ab- 
sent from  his  post  at  the  lime  of  the  attack,  and,  with  tlie  most 
culpable  negligence,  had  made  no  provision  against  surprise. 
The  entire  garrison,  with  the  exception  ot  about  twenty  men 
who  escaped,  instead  of  bemg  taken  prisoners  as  is  here  stated, 
were  put  to  the  sword.  A  scene  of  devastation  followed  along 
the  whole  Niagara  frontier,  under  pretence  of  retaliation  for  tha 
burning  of  Newark,  that  was  truly  appalling. — Am.  Ed. 

()  James,  vol  ii.,  p.  4,  8--22,  396-403.  Brackenridge,  p.  160 
-171. 


240  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

1500  British,  having  taken  post  at  La  Colle  on  the 
river  Richelieu,  Wilkinson,  who  had  upward  of 
4000  men  at  Plattsburg,  determined  to  attack  them. 
On  the  30th  March  he  completely  invested  a  large 
mill,  whicli  the  British  had  converted  into  a  for- 
tress. All  his  attempts  to  carry  it  were,  however, 
fruitless.  Major  Handcock  even  made  two  attacks 
on  the  artillery  posted  in  a  wood,  though  without 
success.  The  American  general  finally  gave  up  the 
undertaking,  and  fell  back  upon  Plattsburg.  In  the 
beginning  of  May  the  English  troops  gained  anothei 
advantage,  carrying,  though  with  some  loss,  tht 
fort  of  Oswego,  where  they  captured  a  considera 
ble  quantity  of  ammunition  and  stores.*! 

The  main  effort  of  the  eneiny  during  this  cam- 
paign was  made  on  the  Niagara  frontier,  where 
about  5000  men  were  placed  under  Major-general 
Brown,  an  officer  who  had  distinguished  himself  ou 
several  occasions.  On  the  3d  of  July  he  crossed 
and  summoned  Fort  Erie,  which,  with  its  garrison 
of  170,  immediately  surrendered.  He  then  march- 
ed towards  Chippeway,  and  beat  at  Street's  Creek 
the  advanced  guard  of  Major-general  Riall,  which 
had  endeavoured  to  stop  his  progress.  The  Eng- 
lish general  was  then  obliged  to  retreat  to  Fort 
George,  and  thence  in  the  direction  of  Burlington 
Heights.  Brown  hereupon  laid  siege  to  the  fort, 
but,  finding  it  stronger  than  he  expected,  and  being 
disappointed  of  assistance  from  Sackett's  Harbour, 
he  fell  back  upon  Chippeway.  General  Riall,  ou 
his  part,  having  received  some  re-enforcements,  ad- 
vanced ;  the  armies  came  close  to  each  other,  and 

♦  The  American  force  stationed  at  this  place  did  not  exceed 
300  mi-n.  The  British  were,  notwithstanding,  repulsed  with 
great  loss  in  their  first  attack,  and  it  was  not  until  they  made  a 
second  attempt,  with  a  body  of  2000  men,  that  they  succeeded 
in  compelling  the  Americans  to  retire.  In  the  mean  time  tha 
stores.  &c  ,  had  been  removed,  and  nothing  of  value  fell  into  the 
Bremv's  hands. — Am.  Ed. 

+  Jaiiit  fl,  vol.  i,,  p  83-90.  421-427.     Brackenridge,  p.  190-193, 


tNDER    THE    BRITISH.  241 

on  the  25th  the  Americans  commenced  the  attack 
The  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane  was  fought  long,  obsti- 
nately, and  with  various  fortune,  a  great  part  of  it 
amid  thick  darkness,  which  caused  several  strange 
mistakes.  The  American  general  and  the  second 
in  command  were  wounded,  and  Riall,  on  the  other 
side,  was  taken  prisoner.  By  a  singular  accident, 
iu  the  midst  of  the  conflict,  Lieutenant-general 
Drummoiid  arrived  with  a  re-enforcement  from 
York,  which  restored  the  battle.  Both  sides  claim 
a  dearly-bought  victory  ;*  the  enemy,  however,  re- 
tired to  Fort  Erie.  On  the  night  of  the  14th  of 
August,  Drummond  made  an  attack  upon  the  place 
in  two  divisions;  but  his  men,  in  both  cases,  were 
repulsed  with  very  severe  loss  f 

Meantime  another  part  of  Canada  became  the  the- 
atre of  important  operations.  After  the  successes 
of  the  allied  powers  in  Europe,  the  capture  of  Paris, 
and  the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  Britain  was  enabled 
to  turn  her  whole  strength  against  the  United  States, 
over  whom  a  full  triumph  was  then  anticipated.  A 
strong  detachment  from  the  south  of  France  arrived 
in  Canada,  and  enabled  Sir  George  Prevost  to  place 
himself  at  the  head  of  11,000  men,  with  whom  he 
undertook  to  carry  the  war  into  the  enemy's  coun- 
try. He  proceeded  to  the  attack  of  Plattsburg  on 
Lake  Champlain,  defended  only  by  1500  troops,  the 
rest  having  been  sent  to  the  upper  province.  Ma- 
comb, the  American  commander,  on  being  pressed 
by  this  superior  force,  fell  back  on  his  main  posi- 
tion, which  he  strongly  fortified.  Sir  George,  on 
the   nth  of  September,  arrived  in  front  of  it;  but 

♦  The  battle  of  Lundy's  Lane  was  among  the  most  sangui- 
nary and  obstinate  conflicts  that  occurred  during  the  war.  The 
American  accounts  state  that  the  British  force  engaged  was  little 
short  of  5000  ;  while  their  own  was  nearly  a  third  less.  The 
loss  on  both  sides  was  exceedingly  severe,  and  nearly  equal : 
amountmg,  in  the  aggregate,  to  nearly  2000  men. — Am.  Ed. 

+  James  vol.  ii.,  p.  143-147,  436-452.  Brackenridge,  p.  219- 
236. 


242  HISTORV    OF    CANADA 

the  naval  force  under  Captain  Downie  destined  to 
co-operate  with  him,  was  attacked  by  the  enemy, 
and  under  his  very  eye  completely  defeated  and  cap- 
tured.* Conceiving,  after  this  disaster,  that  any 
success  in  storming  the  enemy's  position  wouH  be 
fruitless  as  to  ulterior  objects,  and  a  useless  sacri- 
fice  of  men,  he  immediately  withdrew  his  army. 
This  course  was  not  approved  by  all ;  and  the  gen- 
eral result,  so  contrary  to  expectation,  gave  rise  to 
much  discontent  and  recrimination.! 

The  Americans  were  still  strong  in  Upper  Canada. 
On  the  17lh,  General  Brown  saUied  from  Fort  Erie, 
and  caused  a  severe  loss  to  the  British,  who  soon 
after  raised  the  siege.  Being  pressed  by  a  large 
additional  force  under  Izard,  General  Drummond 
retreated  to  the  old  position  at  BurHngton  Heights ; 
but  receiving  a  re-enforcement,  consisting  of  a  de- 
tachment of  the  troops  newly  arrived  from  Europe, 
he  again  advanced.  Izard,  upon  this,  evacuated 
Fort  Erie,  and  took  up  winter  quarters  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  river.  During  the  autumn  the  Ameri- 
cans gained  some  advantages  on  Lake  Erie,  but  were 
repulsed  with  considerable  loss  in  an  attempt  to  re- 
cover Fort  Michilhmackinac.| 

The  war,  meantime,  in  other  parts  of  America 
was  productive  of  important  events.  The  British 
obtained  possession  of  Washington,  where  they  de- 
stroyed the  public  edifices  and  property ;  but  they 
were  defeated  in  their  attacks  upon  Baltimore  and 
New-Orleans.     Both  parties  at   this  time  became 

♦  The  British  force  in  this  action  consisted  of  seveuteen  ves- 
sels, carrying  ninety-six  guns,  and  more  than  a  thousand  men. 
That  of  the  Americans  was  composed  of  fourteen  vessels,  with 
eighty  guns,  and  about  eight  hundred  men.  While  the  action 
was  raging  on  the  lake,  several  desperate  but  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts were  made  to  storm  the  American  works.  The  triumph 
of  the  Americans  was  thus  complete.— ^m.  Ed. 

t  James,  vol.  ii.,  p.  213-217,  462-408.  Brackenridge,  p.  266- 
871. 

t  Jamea,  vol.  ii.,  p.  230-210,  470.     Brackenridgfe,  p.  241. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  243 

inclined  for  peace,  which  was  concluded  at  Ghent 
on  tlie  2'lth  December,  1814,  upon  terms  which,  after 
this  long  and  chec  kered  contest,  brought  back  the 
two  powers  to  exi'.cMy  the  same  position  as  when 
they  had  commenced.* 

Sir  George  Prevost  was  succeeded  in  April,  1815, 
by  Sir  George  Gordon  Drummond,  under  whom 
some  discontents  began  again  to  appear.  These 
referred  chiefly  to  the  conduct  of  the  judges,  whom 
the  Assembly  viewed  with  such  jealousy  that  they 
had  impeached  at  one  time  the  heads  of  the  court 
both  at  Quebec  and  Montreal.  In  1816,  Sir  John 
Coape  Sherbrooke  went  out  as  governor-general ; 
and  under  his  administration,  at  once  vigorous  and 
conciliatory,  harmony  was  little  interrupted.  In 
1818,  he  was  instructed  by  Earl  Bathurst  to  accept 
the  offer  formerly  made  to  pay  the  whole  civil  list 
out  of  the  funds  of  the  province  ;  and  he  applied,  not 
for  a  permanent  settlement,  but  merely  for  the  sum 
necessary  to  meet  the  current  expenses.  This  wa? 
readily  granted  ;  and,  in  order  to  raise  it,  new  taxes 
were  imposed,  of  which,  however,  the  Assembly  re- 
served to  themselves  the  appropriation. 

Sir  John  being  obliged  by  severe  illness  to  return 
to  England,  was  succeeded  in  1818  by  the  Duke  of 
Richmond.  This  nobleman,  though  personally  pop- 
ular, introduced  an  innovation,  which  led  to  the  long 
and  serious  conflict  between  the  crown  and  the  As- 
sembly. Instead  of  submitting,  like  his  predecessor, 
a  detailed  estimate  of  every  object  of  expenditure, 
he  divided  the  whole  into  chapters,  each  compre- 
hending a  head  or  branch,  the  entire  amount  of 
which  was  alone  specified.  The  Assembly  refused 
to  sanction  such  a  change,  and  passed  a  vote  ac- 
cording to  the  estimate  of  the  former  governor, 
stating  each  payment   in   detail.     The   legislative 

*  For  a  full  and  accurate  account  of  the  events  of  this  war, 
»pe  Hale's  History  of  the  United  States,  Harpers'  Schoo*  Du 
irict  Library,  Third  Series. 


244  HISTORY    of    CANADA 

council,  however,  withheld  their  concurrence  from 
this  resolution ;  and  the  duke,  expressing  his  dis- 
pleasure with  the  lower  house,  had  recourse  to  the 
irregular  measure  of  drawing  upon  the  receiver- 
general  for  the  sum  which  he  had  demanded. 

In  September,  1819,  the  duke's  life  and  govern- 
ment were  suddenly  terminated  by  an  attack  of  hy- 
drophobia.* After  short  intervals  under  the  Hon. 
James  Monk  and  Sir  Peregrine  Maitland,  the  Earl 
of  Dalhousie,  in  1820,  was  removed  from  Nova  Sco- 
tia to  Canada.  This  nobleman,  possessing  a  high 
military  reputation  and  an  amiable  disposition,  had 
been  very  popular  in  his  former  station ;  yet,  sha- 
ring with  his  advisers,  it  is  probable,  those  extreme 
monarchical  ideas  which  had  hitherto  prevailed  in 
the  colonies,  he  was  ill  fitted  to  meet  the  new  crisis 
that  had  arisen.  Having  estimated  about  $105,600 
as  the  amount  necessary  for  the  public  service,  in 
addition  to  the  revenues  vested  in  the  crown,  he 
solicited  this  sum  as  a  permanent  grant.  But  the 
Assembly  refused  to  pass  more  than  an  annual  bill 
of  supply,  in  which  they  specified  every  item.  The 
council  again  rejected  their  vote,  with  the  entire 
concurrence  of  the  governor,  who  hesitated  not  to 
draw  upon  the  treasurer  for  even  a  larger  amount 
than  had  been  asked  from  the  Assembly. 

Earl  Bathurst,  on  receiving  notice  of  these  pro- 
ceedings, did  not  disapprove  of  Lord  Dalhousie's 
conduct,  but  strongly  recommended  economy.  He 
directed,  also,  that  two  estimates  should  be  pre- 
sented, one  embracing  the  government  expenses,  to 
be  defrayed  by  funds  of  which  the  crown  claimed 
the  entire  disposal;  the  other  to  be  employed  on 
popular  objects,  in  regard  to  which  the  members 
might  be  left  uncontrolled.  At  the  same  time,  it 
was  enjoined  that  both  of  these  should  be  given  in 

*  This  was  occasioned  by  the  bite  of  a  tame  fox,  not  suspected 
to  be  in  a  raliid  state,  and  with  which  the  duke  was  amusinf 
himself. — Am  Ed. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISfl.  245 

full  detail.  This  arrangement  was  well  received, 
the  required  sum  was  voted,  and  the  session  termi- 
nated amid  mutual  courtesies. 

In  the  year  1B23,  the  popular  cause  was  strength- 
ened by  the  insolvency  ol'  the  receiver-general,  Sir 
John  Caldwell  ;  an  inquiry  into  whose  accounts 
had  been  vainly  demanded"  by  the  Assembly,  mid 
■who  proved  to  be  indebted  to  the  public  nearly 
jClOCOOO.  When,  in  the  following  year,  the  gov- 
ernor presented  his  estimates,  the  representatives 
assumed  a  high  tone :  disputing  the  right  of  the 
crown  to  select  the  objects  on  which  to  employ  its 
revenue;  condemning  the  unlawful  appropriation  of 
public  money,  and  materially  reducing  the  amount 
of  the  sum  demanded.  These  proceedings  drew 
forth  a  strong  expression  of  displeasure  from  Lord 
Dalhousie. 

In  1825,  the  government,  during  his  lordship's 
temporary  absence,  was  administered  by  Sir  Fran- 
cis Burton.  This  officer,  anxious  to  conciliate  the 
lower  house,  yielded  nearly  all  the  points  in  dispute. 
He  sanctioned  a  bill  of  supply,  in  which  no  distinc- 
tion was  made  between  the  goverimieiit  and  the 
popular  expenditure ;  an  annual  grant  being  made, 
with  considerable  reductions,  so  that  a  virtual  con- 
trol over  the  whole  revenue  was  thereby  conceded 
to  the  members.  Accordingly,  they  now  openly 
claimed  the  right  to  appropriate  all  that  was  raised 
within  the  province,  denying  the  privilege,  hitherto 
exercised  by  government,  of  the  uncontrolled  dis- 
posal of  certain  branches.  These  were  the  produce 
of  duties  on  imports,  imposed  by  act  of  Parliament 
in  1774,  and  yielding  annually  about  jC34,000,  with 
some  of  smaller  amount  arising  from  the  sale  of 
land,  timber,  and  other  casual  sources.  Earl  Bath- 
rust  strongly  disapproved  of  the  concessions  made 
by  Burton;  and  Lord  Dalhousie,  having  resumed 
office  in  1826,  disallowed  a  bill  in  which  the  abo^^e 
claim  was  incorporated 

L~T 


246  HISTOUY    OF    CANADA 

Lord  Goderich,  who  in  1827  received  the  seals  of 
the  Colonial  Office,  though  he  maintained  the  right 
of  government  to  dispose  of  the  disputed  revenue, 
yet  directed  that  an  olfer  should  he  made  of  resign- 
ing it  to  the  Assembly  ou  tli^ir  granting  an  annua) 
civil  list  of  jC36,000.     On  the  meeting  of  that  body 
however,  M.  Papineau  was  elected  speaker;  an  ap 
pointment  which,  on  account  of  his  violent  opposi 
tion  to  the  measures  of  administration,  Lord  Dal- 
housie  refused  to  sanction.     The  consequence  was, 
that  no  session  of  either  house  was  held  in  the  win- 
ter of  1827-1828.* 

Discontent  had  nov/  risen  to  an  alarming  height; 
and  in  the  latter  year  a  petition  was  presented  to  the 
king,  signed  by  87,000  inhabitants,  complaining  of 
the  conduct  of  successive  governors,  particularly  of 
the  Earl  of  Dalhousie,  and  urging  a  compliance  with 
the  demands  of  the  Assembly.  Mr.  Huskisson,  who 
had  become  colonial  ininister,  moved  that  this  peti- 
tion should  be  referred  to  a  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  One  was  accordingly  named,  com- 
posed in  a  great  degree  of  inembers  attached  to  lib- 
eral principles,  who,  after  a  very  elaborate  investi- 
gation, gave  in  a  report,  in  which  they  strongly 
condemned  the  practice  of  appropriating  large  sums 
taken  from  the  public  revenue  without  the  sanction 
of  the  representatives  of  the  people.  "With  regard 
to  the  main  portion  of  the  disputed  income,  being 
that  produced  by  the  duties  of  1774,  its  disposal  ap- 
peared, from  the  report  of  his  majesty's  law  offi- 
cers, to  be  vested  in  the  crown ;  yet  the  committee 
judged  that  the  real  interests  of  the  province  would 
be  best  promoted  by  placing  the  whole  under  the 
control  of  the  Assembly.  At  the  same  time,  they 
distinctly  expressed  their  opinion  that  the  governor, 
the  judges,  and  the  executive   council  should    be 

*  Despatches  from  the  Ef.rl  of  Aberdeen  to  Earl  Amhersl 
(ordered  to  be  printed  22d  March,  1838),  p.  10,  11.  M'Gregoi 
vol.  ii.,  p.  395-398. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  24t 

made  independent  of  the  annual  votes  of  that  body. 
They  recommended  that  a  more  liberal  character 
should  be  conferred  on  the  legislative  and  executive 
councils ;  and  that  the  public  lands  should  be  as- 
si<^ned  in  a  more  beneficial  manner.  Generally  ad- 
mitting that  the  grievances  complained  of  were 
more  or  less  well  founded,  they  advised  a  thorough 
and  effectual  redress. 

This  report  appears  to  have  given  very  decided 
satisfaction  in  the  colony,  and  the  Assembly  order- 
ed it  to  be  printed,  and  400  copies  distributed.*  In 
a  series  of  resolutions  passed  on  the  19th  March, 
1830,  they  seem  to  limit  their  demands  to  the  com- 
plete fulfilment  of  its  provisions. f  Sir  James  Kempt, 
who  was  sent  out  in  1828,  had  been  furnished  with 
instructions  to  carry  the  recommendations  of  the 
committee  into  effect  with  as  little  delay  as  possible, 
and  generally  to  follow  a  conciliatory  system.  He 
appears  to  have  proceeded  with  zeal  and  efficiency 
in  the  prescribed  course.  Three  new  members 
were  added  to  the  legislative  council,  who  are  said 
to  have  been  agreeable  to  the  popular  party.  The 
judges,  with  the  exception  of  the  chief  justice,  whose 
advice  on  legal  questions  was  considered  desirable, 
were  requested,  with  some  earnestness,  to  resign 
thf  ir  places  in  that  body.  They  declined  compliance, 
but  agreed  to  take  no  share  in  its  deliberations,  and 
did  not  afterward  attend  its  sittings.  New  members 
were  also  added  to  the  executive  council,  in  which 
seats  were  even  offered  to  Neilson  and  Papineau, 
the  leaders  of  the  opposition.  The  act  transferring 
to  the  Assembly  the  revenue  in  dispute  could  not  be 
obtained  immediately,  but  it  was  promised  on  the 
first  meeting  of  Parliament.  The  Assembly,  how- 
ever, in  voting  the  supplies  of  1829,  had  proceeded 
on  the  supposition  of  having  the  whole  at  their  dis- 

♦   Minutes  of  the  Rvidfrice  taken  before  the  Select  Commit 
tee  appointed  in  1834  un  the  Affairs  of  Lower  Canada. 
t  Ibid ,  p.  8. 


24s  MISTORV    OF    CANADA 

posal,  and  cut  off  several  thousand  pounds  from  the 
governor's  estimates ;  but  as  the  vote  did  not  appear 
to  involve  any  absohjte  recognition  of  their  claim, 
and  as  it  seemed  inexpedient  to  dispute  a  point  vir- 
tually given  up,  Sir  James  yielded  his  assent.  This 
step,  though  not  approved  by  Sir  George  Murray, 
was  not,  under  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
case,  positively  disallowed.  The  governor  is  said 
to  have  treated  the  ruling  party  in  the  Assembly 
with  a  courtesy  of  manners  to  which  they  had  not 
been  accustomed  ;  and  on  his  departure  in  1830,  ad- 
dresses were  presented  to  him  by  the  most  respect- 
able inhabitants  of  Quebec  and  Montreal,  which 
were  signed  by  Papineau  and  other  popular  lead- 
ers.* 

Lord  Aylmer  immediately  succeeded  to  the  gov- 
ernment. His  communications  with  the  Assembly 
were  of  the  most  friendly  description ;  and  though 
circumstances  consequent  on  the  death  of  George 
IV.  had  still  prevented  the  passing  of  the  proposed 
act,  it  was  promised  with  all  practicable  speed. 
Lord  Goderich,  who  now  presided  in  the  Colonial 
Office,  directed  that  the  items,  which  had  been  again 
rejected  in  1830,  and  amounted  now  to  $36,000, 
should  not  be  longer  pressed,  but  a  compensation  be 
requested  for  several  individuals  who  had  been 
thereby  deprived  of  their  income.  On  the  24th  De- 
cember, his  lordship  sent  two  despatches,  intimating 
his  intention  to  bring  in  a  bill  which  should  em- 
power his  majesty  to  place  the  proceeds  of  the  du- 
ties in  question  at  the  disposal  of  the  Assembly.  In 
return,  that  body  was  expected  to  make  a  permanent 
provision  for  the  judges,  as  well  as  for  the  principal 
officers  of  government.  The  demand  was  fixed  at 
$91,680,  which,  by  a  grant  of  $24,000,  made  in  1796 
for  the  support  of  the  civil  government,  would  be 

♦  Evidence  before  Coir.Tnittee  of  1834,  p.  4,  5.  8,  87,91-93. 
Existing  Difficulties  in  the  Government  of  the  Canadas,  by  J 
A.  Roebuck,  M.P.  (London,  183C),  p.  16. 


(jNDER    the    BRITISH.  249 

reduced  to  $67,C80.  It  was  iiUiinHted,  however, 
that  the  casual  and  territorial  revenues  arising  from 
the  sale  of  land,  the  cutting  of  timber,  and  otiier 
sources,  were  still  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  king.  They  had  amounted  in  the  previous  year 
to  $53,908;  but  were  reduced,  by  expenses  of  col- 
lection and  other  deductions,  to  about  $36,000. 
This  sum  it  was  proposed  to  employ  chiefly  in  pay- 
ing the  stipends  of  the  clergy  of  the  Established 
Church,  hitherto  drawn,  not  very  appropriately,  out 
of  the  army  extraordinaries.  It  was  urged  that 
these  funds  belonged  legally  and  constitutionally  to 
his  majesty,  whose  employment  of  them  upon  ob- 
jects not  of  mere  patronage,  but  closely  connected 
with  the  interests  of  the  province,  could  not  be  rea- 
sonably objected  to. 

Lord  Aylmer  was  well  aware  that  this  last  reser- 
vation would  be  deemed  very  unsatisfactory  ;  but 
he  considered  it  most  prudent  to  lay  before  the  As- 
sembly a  full  and  frank  statement  of  the  views  of 
government.  That  body,  after  inquiring  into  the 
mode  of  collection  and  amount  of  these  revenues, 
passed  a  resolution,  that,  "  under  no  circumstances, 
and  upon  no  consideration  whatever,  they  would 
abandon  or  compromise  their  claim  to  control  over 
the  whole  public  revenue."  Particular  objection 
was  also  intimated  to  the  support  of  exclusive  re- 
ligious establishments ;  doubtless  more  strongly 
felt  from  the  circumstance  that  the  church  to  be 
endowed  was  different  from  that  of  the  ruling  party. 
They  determined,  therefore,  for  the  present,  not  to 
grant  any  permanent  supply  ;  and  on  the  8th  March, 
1831,  dvew  up,  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  Neilson,  a  long 
list  of  grievances,  which  was  presented  to  the  gov- 
ernor. He  expressed,  in  return,  an  earnest  wish  to 
know  if  these  comprised  the  whole  of  their  com- 
plaints ;  giving  them  to  understand  that  silence 
would  be  construed  into  an  admission  of  their 
being  so.     They  were  accordingly  silent;  passed  ^ 


250  HISTORY   OF    CANADA 

bill  of  annual  supply  ;  and  showed,  on  the  whole,  a 
more  favourable  tone  and  temper.* 

His  lordship  transmitted  the  list  of  complaints, 
with  admission  that  many  of  them  were  well  found- 
ed, at  the  same  time  strongly  eulogizing  the  loyal 
disposition  of  the  people  of  Canada.  Lord  Gode- 
rich,  in  a  long  reply,  dated  July  7,  1831,  declared 
that  there  was  scarcely  a  point  which  government 
were  not  ready  to  concede,  and  expressed  his 
satisfaction  at  the  prospect  thus  afforded  of  a  ter- 
mination to  this  long  and  harassing  contest.  This 
despatch  was  laid  before  the  House,  who,  in  a  se- 
ries of  resolutions,  declared  their  gratitude  for 
the  expressions  of  his  majesty's  paternal  regard, 
the  proofs  of  a  just  and  liberal  policy,  and  the  feel- 
ings of  kindness  and  good-will  manifested  in  it. 
The  different  points  to  which  it  related  were  referred 
to  separate  committees.! 

Soon  after,  a  despatch  from  the  colonial  secreta- 
ry made  known  that  the  act  for  transferring  the 
funds  in  dispute  had  passed  the  houses  of  Parlia- 
ment and  received  the  royal  assent.  Whether  from 
extreme  liberality  or  total  inadvertence,  it  was  so 
worded  as  to  preclude  the  imperial  treasury  from 
ever  exercising  any  control  over  them,  leaving  thus 
no  room  for  negotiation  with  the  Assembly.  Lord 
Aylraer  was  instructed,  however,  to  demand,  in 
return,  a  grant  of  permanent  salaries  to  the  judges, 
who  were  also,  according  to  the  Assembly's  desire, 
to  be  made  independent  of  the  crown;  and  a  simi- 
lar provision  was  asked  for  the  governor  and  a  few 
of  the  chief  executive  officers.  This  matter  being 
referred  to  the  Assembly,  they  began,  on  the  20tb 
January,  1832,  with  the  first  particular.  On  provi- 
ding that  the  judges  should  be  independent  of  the 
crown,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  chief  justice, 

♦  Evidence  befoie  Committee  of  1834,  p.  9-13,  19-25,  31-tO. 
t  Ibid.,  p.  37-47. 


UNDKR    THE    BRITISH.  251 

should  not  sit  in  the  executive  or  legislative  coun- 
cils, it  was  deteriniiicd  that  permanent  salaries 
should  be  paid  to  them.  But,  at  the  same  time,  a 
motion  of  Mr.  Neilson  was  carried  by  a  large  ma- 
jority, that  these  should  be  drawn  in  the  first  in- 
stance from  the  casual  and  territorial  revenues, 
which  Lord  Goderich  had  expressly  reserved  to  the 
crown.  Lord  Aylmer  considered  it,  therefore,  ne- 
cessary to  send  home  the  bill,  yet  with  an  advice 
to  accept  the  terms,  as  the  best  there  was  any  like- 
lihood of  obtaining.  It  was  rejected,  however,  on 
two  grounds;  first,  that  it  did  not  render  the  judges 
really  independent  of  the  Assembly,  but  left  an  an- 
nual vote  still  necessary.  We  cannot  help  suspect- 
ing that  there  was  here  an  unhappy  misconception. 
The  terms  of  the  bill  are,  "  that  the  salaries  shall 
be  secured  to  them  in  a  fixed  and  permanent  man- 
ner ;"  and  "  sliall  be  taken  and  paid  out  of  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  casual  and  territorial  revenue,  and  the 
revenue  now  appropriated  by  acts  of  the  provincial 
Parliament  for  defraying  the  charges  of  the  admin- 
istration of  justice  and  the  support  of  the  civil  gov- 
ernment, and  out  of  any  other  public  revenue  of 
the  province  which  maybe,  or  come  into  the  hands 
of  the  receiver-general."  It  would  appear  that, 
according  to  the  plain  meaning  of  language,  these 
terms  involved  a  full  warrant  for  payment.  Prob- 
ably Lord  Goderich  had  legal  advice,  and  some 
technical  terms  usual  in  British  acts  might  be  want- 
ing; but  a  provincial  legislature  could  scarcely  be 
expected  to  be  fully  aware  of  these  niceties.  The 
legislative  body,  the  governor,  and,  we  doubt  not, 
also  the  Assembly,  had  considered  this  as  a  per- 
manent settlement ;  the  latter,  had  it  been  so  acted 
on,  probably  would  not,  and  certainly  could  not, 
reasonably  have  objected.  The  other  ground  was 
the  encroachment  upon  the  casual  and  territorial 
revenue,  which,  made  in  this  indirect  manner,  was 
considered  peculiarly  offensive,  though  Lord  Gode- 


252  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

rich  had  been  fully  apprized  of  their  determiriRtion 
against  any  agreement  in  which  this  article  was 
not  included.* 

The  next  question  which  came  before  the  As- 
sembly was  the  demand  of  a  permanent  provision 
for  the  governor  and  a  certain  number  of  the  lead- 
ing executive  officers.  After  a  long  debate,  how- 
ever, it  was  carried  by  a  large  majority  in  tlie  neg- 
ative. This  decision  placed  the  Assembly  com- 
pletely at  issue  with  the  crown,  and  has  been  rep- 
resented as  a  breach  of  faith  on  their  part.  They 
had  not,  it  is  true,  come  under  any  formal  engage- 
ment; yet  the  report  of  the  committee  of  1828, 
which  decidedly  connected  this  arrangement  with 
the  cession  of  the  disputed  reveiuies,  had  always 
been  referred  to  by  them  as  embracing  almost 
everything  desired  ;  and  to  this  part  of  it  they  had 
never  hinted  any  objection.  On  the  6th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1830,  they  had  passed  resolutions,  insisting  in- 
deed on  the  control  of  the  entire  revenue,  but  ex- 
pressing an  intention,  were  this  gained,  to  grant 
the  permanent  provision  now  demanded.  That 
preliminary  claim  certainly  embraced  also  the  cas- 
ual and  territorial  branches  still  withheld  ;  yet  these 
were  not  of  great  amount ;  and  the  present  bill,  like 
that  relating  to  the  judges,  might  have  been  so 
framed  as  to  be  inoperative  without  these  funds 
being  embraced  by  it.  No  reason  was  assigned ; 
but  the  view  of  the  Assembly  is  stated  to  have 
been,  that  the  executive  not  being  dependant  on 
them  for  a  naval  and  military  establishment,  would, 
in  case  of  such  a  permanent  settlement,  have  been 
entirely  free  from  that  control  which  they  sought 
to  exercise  over  it.  They  passed,  however,  a 
vote  of  annual  supply,  which  Lord  Goderich,  though 
much  dissatisfied  with  the  tenour  of  their  proceed- 
ings, thought  it  expedient  to  sanction.! 

♦  Evidence,  1834,  p.  56-65.  t  Ibid.,  p.  5d~ea. 


UNDf^H    THR    BRITISH.  2i)3 

Next  year  (1833)  llie  Assembly  still  granted  only 
an  aiuiual  bill,  in  wliicli,  according  to  a  requisition 
of  l^ord  Goderich,  tliey  slated  tlie  purposes  to  wliicli 
each  particular  sum  was  to  be  apjilied.  They 
added,  without  its  being  asked  or  wished,  the  indi- 
viduals to  whom  it  was  to  be  paid ;  and  appended 
a  number  of  conditions,  chiefly  bearing,  that  such 
persons  should  not  hold  any  other  situation,  and 
should  not  be  nienibeis  of  tlie  executive  or  legisla- 
tive councils.  This  was  considered  objectionable, 
because  public  otficers  were  thus  suddenly  deprived 
of  situations  which  they  had  long  held,  without  any 
consideration  >jf  their  claims  to  compensation;  also 
because  those  regulations  ought  not  to  have  been 
tacked  to  a  money  bill,  but  made  the  subject  of  a 
separate  enactment.  On  these  grounds  this  bill 
was  negatived  by  the  legislative  council,  and  Lord 
Stanley,  who  had  been  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Colonial  Ot^ice,  intimated  that,  had  it  reached  him, 
he  could  not  have  advised  his  majesty  to  assent  to 
it.  In  the  same  session,  a  measure  was  introdu- 
ced for  securing  independence  and  permanent  pro- 
vision to  the  judges,  in  a  form  calculated  to  obviate 
Lord  Goderich's  chief  objections;  but,  on  the  mo- 
tion of  M.  Papineau,  it  was  rejected,  and  the  speech- 
es of  the  leaders  of  the  Assembly  are  said  to  have 
implied,  that  it  was  no  longer  considered  advisa- 
ble to  exempt  these  functionaries  from  their  con- 
trol.* 

The  breach  now  continually  widened.  Lord 
Stanley,  considering  the  conduct  of  the  Canadians 
as  manifesting  a  resolution  to  engross  the  whole 
power  of  the  slate,  directed  the  funds  not  yet  made 
over  by  Parliament  to  be  employed  in  the  partial 
payment  of  the  civil  officers;  and  he  is  said  to  have 
determined  to  bring  in  a  bill  for  repealing  the  act  by 
which  the  concession  had  been  made.     Meantime 

*   Evidence,  1834,  p.  7i-79. 

1.— u 


254  HlSTUKY    OF    CAftAUA 

the  Assembly  had  raised,  and  placed  in  the  front  of 
their  demands,  a  new  article,  which  almost  entirely 
precluded  all  hope  of  accommodation,  namely,  the 
abolition  of  the  present  legislative  council,  and  the 
substitution  of  one  elected,  like  themselves,  by  the 
body  of  tiie  people.  Such  an  arrangement  was 
without  example  in  any  British  colony  ;  and  the  ex- 
isting state  of  political  feeling  in  the  mother  coun- 
try would  have  rendered  it  scarcely  possible  for 
ministers  to  propose  it  in  Parliament.  It  had  been 
first  started  in  March,  1831,  when  Lord  Aylmer  had 
just  gone  out  with  the  announced  intention  of  act- 
ing upon  the  report  of  1828,  and  redressing,  if  pos- 
sible, every  grievance  hitherto  complained  of. 
There  seemed,  therefore,  room  to  suspect,  that  the 
conciliatory  disposition  shown,  instead  of  producing 
final  satisfaction,  had  only  prompted  to  higher  de- 
mands, through  tlie  belief  that,  by  perseverance, 
they  would  finally  obtain  whatever  they  chose  to 
ask.  Yet,  though  a  resolution  of  the  committee  to 
that  eflTect  was  approved  by  the  members,  it  was 
not  expressly  included  in  the  list  of  grievances  then 
presented.  But,  on  the  20th  March,  1833,  a  petition 
to  the  king,  signed  by  M.  Papineau,  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Assembly,  strenuously  urged  this  measure, 
and  the  calling  of  a  body  of  delegates  to  arrange 
the  conditions.  The  leading  ones  proposed  were, 
a  qualification  in  the  electors  of  $48  in  the  country 
and  of  $96  in  towns,  a  certain  income  to  qualify 
the  councillor,  and  the  duration  of  his  functions  for 
six  years.  Lord  Stanley,  in  reply,  said  this  was  an 
object  to  which,  deeming  it  altogether  inconsistent 
with  the  very  existence  of  monarchical  institutions, 
he  could  never  advise  his  majesty  to  consent;  and 
he  particularly  objected  to  the  proposed  mode  of 
effecting  it,  by  what  he  termed  "  a  national  conven- 
tion." A  counter  address,  however,  by  the  legisla- 
tive coiincil,  was  censured  as  intemperate  in  its  lan- 
guage, and   appearing   to  ascribe  generally  to  his 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  255 

majesty's  subjects  of  one  origin  views  inconsistent 
with  their  allegiance.  In  conclusion,  he  alluded  to 
"the  possibility  thai  events  might  unhappily  force 
upon  Parliament  the  exercise  of  its  supreme  author- 
ity to  compose  the  internal  dissensions  of  the  colo« 
nies,  and  which  might  lead  to  a  modification  of  the 
charter  of  the  Canadas."* 

This  despatch  was  submitted  to  the  Assembly, 
and  its  entire  tenour,  particularly  the  implied  threat 
at  the  close,  excited  the  highest  indignation  in  that 
body.  They  declined  this  year  (1834)  to  pass  any 
bill  of  supply  whatever,  and  employed  the  session 
in  preparmg  another  long  list  of  grievances.  They 
complained  that,  while  those  formerly  urged  were 
still  unredressed,  there  had  been  added  the  partial 
payment  of  the  civil  officers  without  their  consent. 
They  made  a  peremptory  demand  of  the  elective 
legislative  council,  without  which  nothing  would  be 
accepted  as  satisfactory.  Lord  Aylmer's  conduct 
was  reprobated  as  violent,  unconstitutional,  and 
contemptuous,  and  his  recall  urgently  demanded. 
The  petition  was  presented  to  Parliament,  and  a 
committee  appointed  for  its  consideration. 

Meantime  Lord  Stanley  retired  from  power,  and 
was  succeeded  in  the  colonial  department  by  Mr. 
Spring  Rice.  This  gentleman  renounced  the  de- 
sign entertained  by  his  predecessor  of  recalling  the 
revenues  yielded  to  the  Assembly,  and  gave  intima- 
tion, it  is  said,  that  he  would  follow  a  more  concil- 
iatory course.  He  only  asked  a  little  time  till  he 
could  make  himself  master  of  the  subject;  and  thus 
the  popular  leaders  were  induced  to  delay  taking 
any  strong  measures.  They  bitterly  complained, 
however,  tlial  the  administration  was  carried  on  as 
before.  Lord  Aylmer  was  continued  in  the  govern- 
ment, and  though  the  Canadian  funds  were  not  in 
trenched  upon,  a  sum  of  $148  800  was  advanced 

♦  Evidence,  1834,  p.  78,  193-200     Roebuck,  p.  17. 


256  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

from  the  military  chest  for  payment  of  the  civil  ser- 
vants, by  which  their  responsibility  to  the  Assem- 
bly was  equally  evaded.  Before  Mr.  Rice  had  ma- 
tured his  plan,  he  was  removed  from  office  by  the 
accession  of  Sir  Robert  Peel  to  power.  He  stated 
that  he  had  it  completed,  and  was  ready  to  submit 
it  to  the  cabinet  on  the  very  day  when  this  change 
occurred ;  an  assertion  which  Mr.  Roebuck  treats 
with  evident  skepticism,  though  seemingly  without 
any  adequate  ground. 

Sir  Robert,  on  assuming  the  reins  of  office,  early 
directed  his  attention  to  the  disturbed  state  of  Can- 
ada. After  some  deliberation,  he  delern)ined  to 
send  out  a  commissioner,  with  power  to  examine 
on  tlie  spot,  and  redress  witbout  delay,  every  real 
grievance  which  should  be  proved  to  exist.  Even 
the  casual  and  territorial  revenues  were  to  be  sur- 
rendered, on  condition  of  the  settlement  of  a  civil 
list  for  at  least  seven  years.  The  elective  legisla- 
tive council,  however,  and  the  entire  management 
of  the  public  lands,  could  not  be  conceded.*  Vis- 
count Canterbury,  the  late  speaker,  was  first  invited 
to  fill  this  important  appointment,  and,  on  his  decli- 
ning, it  was  conferred  on  Earl  Amherst,  'i'his  ar- 
rangement, however,  was  nullified  by  the  vole  which 
led  to  the  resignation  of  Sir  Robert,  and  the  return 
of  Lord  Melbourne  to  power. 

The  restored  ministry  followed  up,  with  certain 
modifications,  the  plan  of  their  predecessors.  A 
commission  was  sent  out,  for  inquiry  only,  and  with- 
out the  power  of  decision,  composed  of  the  follow- 
ing individuals :  the  Earl  of  Gosford,  Sir  Charles 
Edward  Grey,  and  Sir  George  Gipps.  The  first,  an 
Irish  nobleman,  professing  principles  decidedly  lib- 
eral, succeeded  Lord  Aylmer  as  governor.  Lord 
Glenelg,  now  the  colonial  secretary,  drew  up  for 
their  guidance  a  series  of  instructions,  in  which  he 

*  Despatch  from  tJwviiAvl.of.  Aberdeen  to  Eai:I  Amherst,  p.  3-*- 


UNDER    THE    URlTISlf.  25t 

cousidored  the  claim  to  tlie  disposal  of  the  entire 
rcveiuic  sonicwh;it  exorbitant,  and  not  warranted 
by  British  example,  yet  was  vviUing,  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  to  cuasent  lo  it  on  certain  conditions. 
These  were,  an  independent  provision  for  the  judg- 
es, and  salaries  for  the  civil  officers,  fixed  for  a  cer- 
tain number  of  years,  ten  bemg  mentioned  as  par- 
ticularly suitable.  With  regard  to  the  uncleared 
lands,  the  whole  proceeds  arising  from  their  sale 
were  to  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Assembly ; 
but  government  could  not  consent  to  part  with  tFio 
management  of  them,  or  annul  the  contract  made 
with  the  Land  Company,  though  they  would  be 
ready  to  guard  against  all  abuses,  and  even  to  re- 
ceive any  suggestions  on  the  subject.  The  existing 
pensions  were  also  to  be  retained,  but  the  future 
power  of  granting  them  would  be  surrendered.  In 
regard  to  the  critical  question  of  the  elective  legis- 
lative council,  it  was  said,  "The  king  is  most  un- 
willing to  admit,  as  open  to  debate,  the  question 
whether  one  of  the  vital  principles  of  the  provincial 
government  shall  undergo  alteration."  The  right 
of  petition,  however,  was  fully  recognised,  and  his 
majesty  would  not  "  absolutely  close  the  avenue  to 
inquiry,"  even  where,  "  for  the  present,  he  saw  no 
reasonable  ground  of  doubt."* 

The  Earl  of  Gosford  having  arrived  in  Canada, 
lost  no  time  in  calling  a  meeting  of  the  legislature, 
who  were  convoked  on  the  27th  October,  1835; 
and  in  his  opening  speeches  he  professed  the  most 
conciliatory  views,  particularly  towards  the  French 
or  popular  party.  He  avowed  the  opinion,  that  "  to 
be  acceptable  to  the  great  body  of  the  people  is  one 
of  the  most  essential  elements  of  fitness  for  public 
station."  He  intimated  his  readiness  to  place  the 
whole  revenue  at  the  disposal  of  the  Assembly  on 
the  conditions  formerly  stated.     All  the  other  griev- 

*  Copy  of  the  Instructions  to  the  Eai  1  of  Gosford,  (Sic,  p.  5-13. 


258  HISTOKY    (iP    CANADA 

ances  were  to  be  carefully  examined  and  redressed; 
and  allusion  was  made  to  "still  graver  matters," 
respecting  which  the  coniinissioners  "were  not 
precluded  from  entering  into  an  inquiry." 

The  legislative  council  lelurned  an  answer  which, 
in  all  respects,  was  extremely  moderate.  They 
generally  concurred  m  the  sentiments  of  the  speech, 
deprecated  the  idea  that  difference  of  origin  should 
aftect  political  rights,  which  ought  to  be  equal  to  all 
his  majesty's  subjects.  Out  the  House  of  Assembly, 
while  holding  conciliatory  language,  advanced  much 
higher  pretensions.  The  change  in  the  legislative 
council  was  repeatedly  pressed,  as  absolutely  es- 
sential to  the  tranquillity  and  contentment  of  the 
province.  The  entire  control  of  the  public  revenue 
was  referred  to,  not  as  a  boon,  but  an  incontestable 
and  essential  right ;  and  while  they  stated  their 
readiness  to  consider  attentively  any  measure  tend- 
ing to  facilitate  the  exercise  of  this  right,  they 
avoided  all  mention  of  conditions  to  be  performed 
in  return.  Notwithstanding  the  high  ground  thus 
taken,  the  intercourse  between  the  popular  leaders 
and  the  governor  was  extremely  friendly.  He  ad- 
niiLted  them  to  his  table  and  his  intimacy,  and  treat- 
ed them  on  every  occasion  with  much  kindness. 
They  were  understood  to  represent  the  great  body 
t)f  the  people,  whom  he  had  expressed  his  desire  to 
conciliate  ;  and  he  professed  liberal  views  to  those 
who  would  understand  that  term  in  its  widest  sense. 
So  decided  was  the  impression  produced,  that  the 
opposite  party  loaded  him  with  the  bitterest  invec- 
tives, and  even  threw  out  menaces  of  insurrection; 
wliile  the  leaders  of  the  Assembly  went  so  far  as 
to  intimate,  that  they  would  relieve  the  immediate 
financial  embarrassments  by  granting  the  three 
years'  arrears,  and  a  half  year  in  advance.  They 
attached  to  the  grant  somewhat  hard  conditions, 
which,  however,  were  not  rejectei;  and  on  the  re- 
mark being  made  that  these  would  ensure  its  rejec- 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH  25? 

tion  by  the  legislative  council,  an  intimation  is  said 
to  have  been  given  that  it  would  be  accepted  di- 
,  rectly  by  address,  without  being  liable  to  the  veto 
<  f  tliat  body.* 

This  good  understanding  was  suddenly  interrupt- 
ed. The  governor's  language  above  cited,  in  regard 
to  the  elective  council,  had  been  very  different  from 
that  of  his  instructions,  not  pledging  him  indeed  to 
the  measure,  yet  such  as,  combined  with  his  other 
conduct,  conveyed  to  both  parties  the  idea  that  it 
was  determined  upon.  This  course  is  defended  as 
the  only  one  by  which  the  supplies  so  urgently 
wanted  could  be  obtained ;  and  it  was  hoped  that, 
by  a  continued  conciliatory  course,  the  Assembly 
might,  when  the  real  intention  of  the  cabinet  could 
no  longer  be  concealed,  be  induced  to  wave  their 
demand.  Any  degree  of  duplicity  in  a  government, 
however,  must,  when  discovered,  lower  its  dignity, 
irritate  the  deceived  parties,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
give  them  an  impression  of  their  strength,  which 
had  driven  those  in  authority  to  such  an  expedient. 
Unhappily,  all  those  effects  followed  before  any  of 
the  expected  fruits  had  been  reaped.  Sir  Francis 
Bond  Head  had,  at  the  same  time,  been  sent  out  to 
Upper  Canada,  and,  being  a  very  straightforward 
person,  and  seemingly  unapprized  of  Lord  Gosford's 
intentions,  had  made  public  a  part  of  the  instruc- 
tions, including  that  momentous  passage  already 
quoted  relative  to  the  legislative  council.  It  was 
such  as,  though  not  wholly  precluding  discussion  on 
the  object,  left  to  the  popular  leaders  scarcely  a 
hope  of  its  attainment.  Their  rage  knew  no  bounds ; 
they  complained  not  only  of  disappointment  in  their 
favourite  object,  but  of  a  deception  by  which  they 
had  been  nearly  misled.     It  was  now  determined 

*  Papers  relating  to  Lower  Canada  (20th  February,  1837)  p. 
4-12.  Anti-Gallic  Letters,  by  Camillus  (Montreal,  1836  p. 
35-41.  Correspondence  on  Canada  Affairs  (Brighton,  1836  p. 
3-6,  &:c. 


HaO  HISTORY    OP    CANADA 

not  to  grant  the  three  years'  arrears,  but  merely  a  sup- 
ply for  the  current  half  year,  allowing  only  that  short 
period  to  comply  with  their  demands.  This  slender 
f  boon,  too,  was  clogged  with  conditions  which,  as 
had  been  foreseen,  induced  the  upper  house  to  reject 
it,  so  that  the  session,  in  all  respects  very  stormy, 
passed  over  without  any  provision  whatever  being 
made  for  the  public  service.  The  legislative  coun- 
cil felt  indignant  at  the  violent  attempts  meditated 
for  its  overthrow,  and  instead  of  studying  to  show 
these  to  be  unmerited,  the  members  vented  their  re- 
sentment by  rejecting  almost  every  bill  sent  up  from 
the  Assembly.  Among  these  was  the  vote  contin- 
uing the  funds  for  national  education,  which  were 
thus  entirely  withdrawn.  All  the  political  elements 
were  disturbed,  and  in  violent  coUision  with  each 
other.* 

The  commissioners,  in  March,  1836,  viewing  this 
state  of  things,  and  seeing  no  prospect  of  obtaining 
money  to  carry  on  the  government,  without  imme- 
diately yielding  to  every  demand  of  the  lower  house, 
considered  it  indispensable  to  obtain  it  without  their 
consent.  This,  they  thought,  would  be  best  ac- 
complished by  Parliament  repealing  the  act  passed 
on  the  motion  of  Lord  Goderich,  by  which  funds  to 
the  amount  of  $182,400  had  been  made  over  to  the 
Assembly.  This  would  indeed  excite  bitter  resent- 
ment ;  but,  with  the  other  reserved  revenues,  it 
would  at  least  enable  the  government  to  proceed 
without  any  grants  from  that  body.  Lord  Glenelg 
was  not  forward  to  act  on  this  recommendation. 
He  wrote  to  the  Earl  of  Gosford,  expressing  a  hope, 
on  grounds  which  do  not  very  distinctly  appear,  that 
the  violent  resolution  complained  of  had  been  in- 
duced by  the  partial  and  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
instructions,  and  that  a  communication  of  the  whole 

*  Roebuck,  p.  39.    The  late  Session  of  the  Provincial  Pa 
liament  (Montreal,  1836),  p.  13-29. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  261 

might  lead  to  more  favourable  views.  He  express- 
ed a  wish,  therefore,  that  the  provincial  Parliament 
should  be  again  called,  and  an  opportunity  afforded 
for  retracting  before  recourse  was  had  to  extreme 
measures.  The  meeting  was  accordingly  held  on 
the  22d  of  September,  1836 ;  but  the  majority  soon 
presented  an  address  to  the  governor,  denying  that, 
according  to  the  apprehension  expressed  in  his 
speech,  they  laboured  under  any  kind  of  misconcep- 
tion ;  they  saw  nothing  to  make  them  change  their 
views,  or  prevent  them  from  insisting  on  the  same 
demands,  particularly  that  of  the  elective  council. 
They  adverted  in  an  indignant  manner  to  certain 
pretended  authorities,  as  Ihey  termed  the  commis- 
sion, and  maintained  that  they  themselves  were  the 
legitimate  and  authorized  organ  of  all  classes  of  in- 
habitants ;  that  they  had  used  their  power  in  such 
a  manner  as  ought  to  have  secured  confidence  :  and 
to  them,  not  to  a  few  strangers,  ought  to  have  been 
committed  the  fate  of  the  country.  They  declared 
it  their  imperative  duty  to  adhere  to  the  contents  of 
their  last  address;  "and  to  them  do  we  adhere." 
They  finally  expressed  a  resolution  not  only  to  do 
nothing  more  in  regard  to  supply,  but  to  adjourn 
their  deliberations  altogether,  unless  government 
should  commence  the  great  work  of  justice  and  re- 
form, particularly  in  regard  to  the  second  branch  of 
the  legislature.* 

Matters  had  now  reached  an  extremity  which 
seemed  to  render  it  no  longer  possible  to  delay  an 
interposition. 

Ministers  therefore  determined  no  longer  to  post- 
pone measures  for  counteracting  the  proceedings 
of  the  popular  party,  and  placing  the  executive 
government  in  a  state  of  regular  action.  Parlia- 
ment having  assembled,  and  tlie  reports  of  the  com* 

•  Second  Report  of  Cnnada  Commissioners,  p.  93-95,  &c. 
Papers  relating  to  Lower  Can.ida,  p.  31-41 


262  HISTORY     JF    CANADA 

missioners  being  laid  on  the  table,  Lord  John  Rus- 
sell, on  the  6th  March,  1837,  moved  a  series  of  res- 
olutions on  which  acts  were  to  be  founded.  After 
a  statement  of  the  actual  posture  of  affairs,  it  was 
proposed  that  the  sum  of  $681,600  should  be  taken 
out  of  the  provincial  funds  lociied  up  by  the  Assem- 
bly, and  applied  to  the  payment  of  the  judges  and 
other  civil  officers,  down  to  the  10th  April.  It  was 
afterward  agreed,  not,  as  the  commissioners  had 
recommended,  to  resume  any  part  of  the  ceded 
moneys,  but  by  a  strict  economy  to  carry  on  the 
government  from  that  date  with  the  casual  and  ter- 
ritorial revenues,  which  circumstances  had  now 
raised  to  about  $134,400.  The  elective  legislative 
council,  and  the  direct  responsibility  of  the  execu- 
tive one  to  the  Assembly,  were  both  declared  inex- 
pedient ;  though  it  was  stated  as  desirable  that  con- 
siderable improvements  should  be  made  in  the  com 
position  of  both.  These  suggestions  gave  occa- 
sion to  very  warm  debates.  The  Tories,  while 
they  supported  the  proposals  of  government,  ac- 
cused them  of  an  imprudent  indulgence  and  want 
of  energy,  which  had  imboldened  the  malecontent 
party  to  proceed  to  extremities.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  small  but  active  section  of  the  popular 
leaders  justified  all  the  claims  and  proceedings  of 
the  Canadian  Assembly,  denounced  the  resolutions 
as  unconstitutional  and  tyrannical,  and  predicted  as 
their  result  civil  war  and  the  loss  of  the  colonies. 
The  motion  of  Mr.  Leader,  however,  in  favour  of  an 
elective  council,  was  negatived  by  318  to  56,  and  the 
cabinet  measures  were  carried  by  overwhelming 
majorities ;  but  the  death  of  William  IV.  intervened 
before  they  could  be  imbodied  ui  acts  of  Parliament. 
The  necessity  of  a  dissolution,  and  the  unwilling- 
ness to  begin  the  government  of  a  young  and  popu- 
lar queen  by  a  scheme  of  coercion,  induced  minis- 
ters to  substitute  the  expedient  of  advancing  the 
amount  by  way  of  loan  from  ihe  Bri'tish  revenue,  in 


UNDKK    THE    BRITISH.  263 

the  prospect  of  being  ultimately  reimbursed  from 
the  provincial  fund. 

AS  an  interval  was  to  elapse  between  the  passmg 
of  the  resolutions  and  iheir  being  acted  on,  Lord 
Gosford  was  instructed  to  make  a  last  trial  of  the 
Assembly,  in  hopes  that,  seeing  such  a  vast  major- 
ity in  Parliament  against  them,  they  might  be  in- 
duced of  themselves  to  vote  the  money,  and  thus 
save  the  necessity  of  any  unwonted  interference. 
Already,  however,  several  violent  demonstrations 
had  taken  place.  Meetings  were  held  in  the  coun- 
ties of  Montreal  and  Richelieu,  in  which  it  was  af 
firmed,  that  the  votes  of  the  commons  had  put  an 
end  to  all  hopes  of  justice ;  and  that  no  farther  c\t- 
tempts  should  be  made  to  obtain  redress  from  the 
Imperial  Parliament.  They  considered  the  govern- 
ment as  now  only  one  of  force,  to  be  submitted  to 
from  necessity  during  their  present  weakness;  and 
in  order  to  reduce  as  far  as  possible  its  power,  they 
declared  that  all  consumption  of  British  manufac- 
tures, and  of  articles  paying  taxes,  ought  to  be  dis 
continued ;  and,  finally,  that  a  general  convention 
should  be  held,  to  consider  what  farther  measures 
were  advisable. 

Lord  Glenelg,  in  consequence  of  this  state  ol 
things  in  Canada,  had  resolved  to  send  out  two  ad- 
ditional regiments ;  but  afterward,  finding  this  to 
be  inconvenient,  he  gave  authority  to  apply  to  Sir 
Colin  Campbell  for  such  force  as  could  be  spared 
from  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick.  On  the 
6th  of  May  the  governor  replied,  that  he  had  nol 
the  least  expectation  of  anything  serious,  though 
in  case  of  a  dissolution  he  admitted  that  "  there 
might  be  some  broken  heads."  On  the  10th  June, 
however,  upon  learning  that  a  system  of  organi- 
zation was  carrying  on,  he  applied  to  Sir  Colin 
for  a  regiment,  which  arrived  early  in  July.  He 
h.id  already  issued  a  proclamation,  warning  the  peo- 
ple against  all  attempts  to  seduce  them  from  theii 


264  HISTORY     OF    CANADA 

allegiance.  Meetings,  mimerously  attended,  were 
held  in  Montreal  and  Quebec,  condemning  the  con- 
duct of  the  House  of  Assembly,  declaring  attach- 
ment to  British  connexion,  and  deprecating  any 
breach  of  the  public  peace.* 

On  the  18th  August  Lord  Gosford  again  called 
the  provincial  Parliament.  The  resolutions  were 
laid  before  the  Assembly,  with  the  expression  of  a 
hope  that  its  proceedings  would  supersede  the  ne- 
cessity of  their  being  acted  on.  The  changes  in  the 
constitution  of  the  councils  had  been  unfortunately 
delayed  by  difficulties  as  to  certain  appointments  ; 
but  these  improvements  were  solemnly  promised. 
Warm  debates  ensued.  Mr.  Andrew  Stuart,  one  of 
the  members  for  Quebec,  proposed  a  compliance 
with  the  request  of  government,  which  was  nega- 
tived by  63  to  13.  An  address  was  then  moved  by 
M.  Taschereau,  a  representative  of  the  county  of 
Beauce,  expressing  a  willingness  to  give  a  trial  to 
the  means  proposed  for  amending  the  legislative 
council,  but  declining  any  grant  till  they  were 
brought  into  operation.  Another  address,  breath- 
ing most  determined  hostility,  was  then  moved,  and 
carried  by  46  to  31.  It  denounced  the  step  now 
taken  as  an  absolute  destruction  of  the  representa- 
tive government  in  the  province,  a  total  refusal  of 
all  the  reforms  and  improvements  demanded.  If 
these  resolutions  were  carried  into  effect,  the  colo- 
ny, it  was  said,  would  no  longer  be  attached  to  the 
mother  country  by  feelings  of  duty,  of  affection,  and 
mutual  interest,  but  solely  by  physical  force.  In 
this  conjuncture  they  could  see  no  motive  for  the 
slightest  departure  from  their  intention  to  withhold 
the  supplies  ;  and  they  adhered  in  every  respect  to 
their  resolutions  of  30ih  September,  1836  Lord 
Gosford,  in  reply,  gave  utterance  to  his  deep  regret 
at  measures  which  he  considered  a  virtual  annihila- 

•  Copies,  &c.,  of  Correspondence  relative  to  Lower  Canada 
(23d  December,  1837),  p.  8-13,  20-33. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  265 

tion  of  the  constitution,  and  immediately  prorogued 
the  Assembly.* 

The  popular  leaders  seem  now  to  have  formed 
the  resolution  of  hriving  recourse  to  arms.  They 
had  often  asserted,!  and  seem  to  have  at  length  be- 
lieved, that  only  an  effort  was  required  to  sever  the 
colonies  from  the  mother  country.  This  was  a 
most  hasty  and  inconsiderate  conclusion.  The  ex- 
ample of  the  American  colonies  was  referred  to  ; 
but  they  were  much  stronger  than  the  Canadians 
are  now,  while  the  power  of  Britain,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  considerably  smaller.  Yet  it  was  only 
after  a  long  and  calamitous  contest  of  eight  years 
that  they  established  their  independence.  The  aid 
of  the  United  States  was  indeed  held  forth  ;  but  the 
latter  had  been  so  little  disposed  to  intermeddle  on 
such  occasions,  that  they  remained  neutral  during 
the  long  contest  between  Spain  and  her  colonies, 
althougli  her  situation  gave  them  little  to  dread  from 
her  resentment.  Tt  was,  therefore,  very  unlikely 
that  they  should  now  engage  for  such  an  object  in 
a  contest  with  the  whole  power  of  Britain. 

The  meetings  in  pursuance  of  these  views  were 
not  held  on  so  great  a  scale,  or  in  the  same  public 
manner  as  formerly.     They  were  numerous,  how- 
ever, and  breathed  the  most  hostile  spirit,  renoun- 
cing all  hope  of  redress  from  the  parent  state,  and 
pointing  directly  to  a  separation.     A  central  com- 
mittee  was   formed  at  Montreal,  whose   proceed- 
ings were  in  a  great  measure  secret,  and  prepara- 
tions were  understood  to  be  making  for  a  general 
convention.     It  was  nearly  vain  to  attempt  repress 
ingthe  most  violent  demonstrations  agamst  the  gov 
ernment,  since  no  petty  jury  could  be  found  to  con 
vict ;  and  in  two  instances,  when  the  evidence  wa» 
considered  perfectly  conclusive,  the  bills  were  ig. 
nored  by  the  grand  jury.     The  governor,  however 

*  Correspondence,  &c.,  p.  36--45. 

f.  \  Koebuck.  p.  33,  43,  50. 


266  IIISTOR       OF    CA»ADA 

learning  that  numerou ;  individuals  Holding  her 
majesty's  commission  had  taken  a  sliare  in  those 
meetings,  caused  letters  to  be  written  to  them  de- 
manding an  explanation.  On  receiving  none  that 
was  satisfactory,  he  dismissed  eighteen  magistrates 
and  thirty- two  militia  officers.  Among  the  latter 
was  Papineau.  In  the  beginning  of  October,  the 
new  arrangement  of  the  two  councils  was  carried 
mto  effect,  at  least  to  a  great  extent;  but  it  excited 
little  interest,  and  was  rejected  by  the  popular  lead- 
ers as  wholly  unsatisfactory.* 

The  malecontent  party  became  every  day  bolder. 
An  association  was  formed,  under  the  title  of  '•  The 
Sons  of  Liberty,"  who  paraded  the  streets  of  Mon- 
treal in  a  hostile  and  threatening  manner.  'J'hey 
emitted  a  proclamation  containing  the  most  violent 
expressions.  "  The  wicked  designs,"  said  they, "  of 
British  authorities  have  severed  all  ties  of  sympathy 
for  an  unfeeling  mother  country." — "  A  glorious 
destiny  awaits  the  young  men  of  these  colonies;" 
and  this  was  explained  to  be  "  to  disfranchise  our 
beloved  country  from  all  human  authority,  except 
that  of  the  bold  democracy  residing  within  its  bo- 
som." They  alluded  to  "  the  struggle  for  life  and 
liberty  in  which  we  must  sooner  or  later  be  en- 
gaged, when  the  day  of  glory  arrives,  that  will 
see  us  emerge  from  a  long,  dark  bondage  to  the 
splendour  of  light  and  freedom."  At  the  same  time 
in  the  county  of  Two  Mountains,  the  people  deter- 
mined not  to  obey  the  magistrates  appointed  in  the 
room  of  those  displaced  ;  an  organization  was  form- 
ed of  pacificator  justices,  to  compose  differences 
without  recourse  to  the  constituted  authorities,  and 
in  whose  decisions  all  true  patriots  were  required  to 
acquiesce.  Meanwhile,  the  militia  in  that  district 
were  organized  in  a  new  form,  under  officers  of 
their  own  selection,  including  those  recently  dis 

•  Correspondence,  p.  47-50,  63,  72. 


ONDER    THE    BRITISH.  261 

missed;  and  an  active  training  was  carried  on. 
All  loyal  and  neutral  residents  were  compelled  ei- 
ther to  join  the  inalecontents  or  quit  the  territory, 
throughout  which  British  authority  entirely  ceased.* 

No  long  time  passed  before  this  course  of  pro- 
ceeding was  imitated  in  the  more  populous  portion 
of  the  Montreal  territory  lying  southward  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  On  the  23d  October,  a  meeting  was  held 
of  the  five  counties  on  the  Richelieu  and  the  Ya- 
maska,  when  a  petition  was  presented  from  L'Aca- 
die  to  be  admitted  as  a  sixth.  The  petitioners  used 
the  strongest  language,  declaring  themselves  pre- 
pared to  sacrifice  everything  most  dear  to  them  in 
this  world,  to  emancipate  from  a  vile  slavery  the 
land  that  gave  them  birth.  They  renounced  all 
principles  but  those  of  the  purest  democracy,  and 
desired  to  place  themselves  under  the  guidance  and 
behind  the  buckler  of  L.  J.  Papineau.  At  the  meet- 
ing of  the  six  counties,  the  numbers  attending  were 
variously  estimated  from  1500  to  5000,  of  whom  a 
proportion  were  armed.  The  recent  appointments 
to  the  two  councils  were  declared  wholly  unsatisfac- 
tory, while  the  introduction  of  an  armed  force  into 
the  province  was  stigmatized  as  a  new  and  enor- 
mous grievance.  The  magistrates  and  militia  were 
to  be  organized  after  the  model  of  those  of  the  Two 
Mountains,  and  the  example  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty 
was  also  recommended,  "  that  they  might  be  pre- 
pared to  support  each  other  with  promptitude  and 
effect,  should  circumstances  require  them  to  protect 
and  defend  their  threatened  liberties."  A  similar 
address  was  drawn  up  on  the  following  day,  and 
circulated  through  the  province.  The  same  course 
was  followed,  of  compelling  the  officers  to  resign 
their  situations  or  leave  the  country. f 

Govern inenl  did  not  remain  passive  wliile  its  au- 
thority was  openly  set  at  naught,  and  insurrection 

•  Cofrespondence,  &c.,  p.  63-70,        t  Ibid.,  p.  8G--89,  95  100. 


268  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

matured  under  its  very  eye.  Applications  were 
made  to  Sir  Colin  Campbell  for  two  additional  regi- 
ments, and  likewise  for  what  force  could  be  spared 
from  the  Upper  Province.  The  offers  of  the  loyal 
inhabitants  to  place  themselves  in  arms,  which  had 
been  long  declined  from  motives  of  prudence,  were 
now  accepted,  and  volunteer  corps  were  zealously 
and  rapidly  organized.  The  Catholic  clergy  took 
a  decided  part  in  the  support  of  order  and  peace, 
and  an  address  was  published  by  the  Bishop  of  Mon- 
treal, exhorting  his  flock  against  the  violent  and  ille- 
gal proceedings  now  in  progress.  This,  among  a 
religious  people,  though  it  did  not  stop  the  career 
of  those  who  had  so  deeply  committed  themselves, 
had  probably  a  powerful  effect  in  arresting  the 
spread  of  the  disorder,  and  keeping  it  confined,  as  it 
still  was,  to  Montreal  district. 

The  first  blow  was  struck  at  the  town  now  men- 
tioned, between  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty"  and  a  loyal 
association  formed  in  opposition  to  them.  The  for- 
mer were  worsted,  and  pursued  through  the  streets; 
none  were  killed,  but  several  severely  hurt,  particu- 
larly Brown,  who  had  assumed  the  title  of  their 
general.  Papineau's  house,  which  the  victors  at- 
tempted to  burn,  was  saved,  but  the  office  of  the 
Vindicator  newspaper  was  destroyed.  Exaggerated 
reports  of  this  affair  being  spread  throughout  the 
country,  heightened  the  general  ferment ;  and  it  was 
announced  from  various  quarters  that  resistance 
was  daily  extending,  and  assuming  a  more  organized 
form. 

It  was  now  obvious,  that,  unless  some  decisive 
step  were  tak^n,  the  malecontent  cause  must  ecr- 
tinually  gain  new  strength,  and  the  connexion  cf 
the  colonies  with  the  mother  country  become  seri- 
ously endangered.  The  course  deemed  most  ef- 
fectual was  immediately  to  arrest  the  most  active 
leaders.  A  warrant  was  accordingly  issued  at  Mon- 
treal against  twenty-six,  of  whom  seven  were  mem- 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  269 

bers  of  the  Assembly,  including  Papineau  and  Viger. 
Nine  were  apprehended ;  but  Papineau  had  disap- 
peared, and  doubts  were  even  entertained  if  he  were 
still  in  the  province.*  This  step  necessarily  led  to 
a  crisis,  especially  as  some  of  the  warrants  were 
against  persons  residing  in  the  heart  of  the  disturbed 
territory.  Two  being  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  John,  on 
the  Richelieu,  a  party  of  eighteen  volunteer  militia 
were  despatched  thither  to  apprehend  them.  An 
oversight  seems  to  have  been  committed  in  sending 
so  small  a  force,  not  regular,  into  the  midst  of  a  hos- 
tile country.  They  succeeded,  however,  in  captu- 
ring the  parties ;  and  an  armed  body  of  thirty,  who 
appeared  near  Chanibly,  made  no  attempt  to  inter- 
cept them.  Near  Longueuil,  however,  they  found 
a  field  on  the  right  of  the  road  occupied  by  300  well- 
armed  men,  protected  by  a  high  fence.  From  this 
assemblage  afire  was  immediately  opened  upon  the 
detachment,  which,  from  its  position,  could  not  be 
returned  with  effect.  Several  were  wounded,  the 
rest  retreated,  and  the  two  prisoners  were  rescued 
by  the  insurgents.f 

The  standard  of  insurrection  having  thus  been 
openly  raised,  it  became  necessary  to  act  with  the 
utmost  promptitude.  Information  was  received  that 
Papineau,  Brown,  and  Neilson  were  at  the  villages 
of  St.  Denis  and  St.  Charles,  on  the  Richelieu,  which 
had  been  occupied  by  the  armed  inhabitants ;  and 
accordingly.  Sir  John  Colborne,  the  commander-in- 
chief,  sent  strong  detachments,  under  Colonels  Gere 
and  Wetherall,  to  attack  these  places.  The  former, 
on  the  22d  of  November,  having  conveyed  his  force 
in  a  steamer  to  Sorel,  proceeded  up  the  river  against 
St.  Denis ;  but  being  obliged  to  take  a  circuitous 

*  It  has  been  asserted  by  M.  Papineau  and  his  friends,  that 
he  gave  no  encouragement  to  extreme  measu'es;  that  he  wai 
opposed  to  ;he  insurrection,  and  that  he  left  the  province  to 
ivoid  being  '»7^plicated  m  it. — Am.  Ed. 

t  Corresp;  :xience.  u.  95.  102-JlO. 

r._X 


270  HISTORY    OF   CANADA 

route,  through  tracks  which,  from  previous  ram, 
were  knee-deep,  the  troops  arrived  in  a  very  jaded 
state.  Though  the  whole  countiy  was  in  arms,  no 
serious  resistance  was  encountered  till  they  reach- 
ed the  village,  the  entrance  to  which  was  defended 
by  a  large  stone  house  strongly  fortified,  from  which, 
as  well  as  from  others  on  each  side,  a  heavy  fire 
was  opened.  A  iiowitzer  was  brought  up  against 
it,  whence  round-shot  was  fired  with  a  view  to  bat- 
ter it  down,  but  without  effect.  Captain  Markham, 
with  the  advance,  had  cleared  the  way  and  taken 
an  adjoining  house,  but  was  then  severely  wound- 
ed, and  obliged  to  quit  the  field.  Finding  that  no 
impression  could  be  made  on  the  main  barrier,  that 
his  ammunition  was  nearly  exhausted,  and  that 
the  troops  were  overpowered  with  fatigue.  Gore 
considered  a  retreat  unavoidable.  It  was  effected 
without  serious  inconvenience,  though  it  became 
necessary  to  leave  a  cannon  on  the  road,  while  his 
loss  was  six  killed,  ten  wounded,  and  six  missing. 

Meantime,  Colonel  Wetlierall,  with  his  detach- 
ment, proceeded  by  way  of  Chambly  to  St.  Charles, 
a  point  higher  up  the  river.  He  was  delayed  in  a 
similar  manner  by  the  badness  of  the  roads  ;  and,  on 
reaching  St.  Hilaire,  found  it  necessary  to  procure 
another  company  from  Chambly,  and  even  to  send 
a  messenger  to  Montreal,  we  presume  for  farther 
aid.  Having  reason,  however,  to  consider  his  com- 
munications with  that  place  intercepted,  he  detei- 
miued,  on  the  2Gth,  to  advance  to  the  attack.  About 
1500  insurgents,  under  the  command  of  Brown,  had 
posted  themselves  in  the  village,  and  surrounded  it 
with  a  strong  stockade.  The  English  commander, 
on  his  arrival,  drew  up  his  force  at  a  short  distance, 
in  the  hope  uf  producing  some  defection  ;  but  none 
taking  pl.'.ce,  and  h  heavy  fire  being  opened  upon 
him,  he  pushed  forward  to  the  assault.  In  about 
an  hour  the  intrenchment  was  carried,  the  fortified 
houses  and  palisades  were  set  on  fire,  the  troops 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  271 

were  masters  of  the  town,  and  the  insurgents  fled 
in  every  direction.  The  caniagc  was  great,  the  en- 
tire loss  of  the  insurgents  being  about  300.  Charges 
have  been  made  of  severe  and  vindictive  proceed- 
ings, which  we  should  hope  are  exaggerated.*  An- 
other body  took  up  a  position  in  his  rear,  with  a 
view  of  cutting  off  his  return  to  Chainbly  ;  but  when 
he  approached  them  on  the  28th,  the^y  broke  and 
dispersed  at  the  first  onset. f 

The  affair  of  St.  Charles  decided  the  fate  of  the 
contest.  A  general  panic  spread  among  the  peas- 
antry, and  tliey  began  to  consider  themselves  be- 
trayed by  their  leaders.  Colonel  Gore,  strongly 
re-enforced,  again  advanced  upon  St.  Denis,  which 
he  entered  without  resistance  on  the  2d  of  Decem- 
ber, Neilson  and  Brown  having  quitted  it  on  the  pre- 
ceding evening.  He  then  marched  upon  St.  Hya- 
cinthe,  but  found  it  also  undefended,  and  made  a 
vain  search  for  Papineau.  Tlie  chiefs,  renouncing 
their  hopes,  were  already  seeking  safety  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States.  Brown  reached  it  with 
great  difficulty,  through  many  perils ;  Neilson  was 
taken  in  a  barn,  conveyed  to  Montreal,  and  thrown 
into  prison.  Papineau,  however,  could  not  be  dis- 
covered. 

Attempts  were  made  to  support  the  cause  from 
a  quarter  which,  under  certain  circumstances,  might 
have  proved  very  formidable.  The  United  States 
contained  many  individuals  disposed  to  sympathize 
deeply  with  the  Canadians,  anil  sotrie  of  whom  were 
inchned  to  join  them.  Even  in  the  present  hopeless 
circumstances,  200  passed  the  frontier ;  but,  before 
Sir  John  Colborne  could  send  a  force  against  them, 
a  party  of  the  volunteers  of  Missisqui  county,  under 

♦  There  appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  there  was  a  wanton 
and  barbarous  destruction  of  human  life  on  this  occasion. — 
Am.  Ed. 

t  Papers  relating  to  Lower  Canada  (16th  January,  1838),  p. 
3-6. 


272  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

the  command  of  Captain  Kemp,  took  arms  and  drove 
them  back  with  some  loss.  The  whole  of  the  six 
counties,  so  lately  in  open  rebellion,  were  in  a  fort- 
night reduced  to  perfect  tranquillity.* 

There  remained  still  the  districts  of  Two  Mount- 
ains and  Terrebonne,  north  of  Montreal,  where  in- 
surrection had  been  first  organized,  and  still  wore 
its  most  determined  aspect.  Sir  John  Colborne  had 
judiciously  postponed  operations  against  this  quar- 
ter till,  the  south  being  completely  tranquillized,  he 
could  direct  thither  his  whole  force.  On  the  14th 
December  he  marclied  in  person,  with  about  1300 
regular  and  volunteer  troops,  against  the  large  vil- 
lage of  St.  Eustache.  The  disasters  of  their  breth- 
ren elsewhere  had  spread  a  well-founded  alarm  ;  and 
the  greater  number  of  the  men  and  their  leaders, 
including  Girod,  the  supposed  commander-in-chief, 
fled  precipitately.  About  400  of  the  most  resolute, 
however,  continued  to  occupy  a  church  and  adjoin- 
ing buildings,  which  had  been  carefully  fortified  ; 
and  here  so  obstinate  a  stand  was  made,  that  a  Brit- 
ish detachment  was  at  one  point  obliged  to  recede. 
But  fire  having  reached  the  adjacent  edifices,  soon 
spread  to  the  church  itself,  the  defenders  of  which 
were  thereby  speedily  dislodged  :  while  the  troops, 
being  protected  by  the  houses,  did  not  lose  more 
than  one  killed  and  nine  wounded. 

Colonel  Maitland  now  marched  towards  St.  Be- 
noit,  the  chief  village  of  the  Grand  Brule  district, 
which  had  been  the  focus  of  insurrection ;  but  on 
his  way  he  met  a  deputation,  tendering  the  most 
humble  submission,  and  he  entered  the  place  without 
resistance.  Unfortunately,  the  loyal  inhabitants, 
who  had  been  plundered  and  driven  out  of  the  coun- 
try, could  not  be  restrained  from  acts  of  violence, 
and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  houses  were  re- 
duced to  ashes.     Maitland,  after  occupying  St.  Scho- 

•  Papers  (loth  Jan  lary,  1838), p.  18, 19  ,  (2d  February),  p.  3. 


UNDER    TUB    BRITISH.  273 

lastique,  returned  to  Montreal,  leaving  the  Jistrict 
in  a  state  of  perfect  tranquillity.  'Pne  people,  com- 
plaining that  their  chiefs,  after  instigating  them  to 
revolt,  had  deserted  them,  seemed  determined  not 
to  be  again  seduced  into  such  a  course.  Several  of 
the  leaders  were  taken;  Girod  himself,  being  sur- 
rounded so  that  he  could  not  escape,  committed 
suicide.* 

Upper  Canada,  meantime,  had  become  the  theatre 
of  important  events.  For  a  considerable  time,  es- 
pecially since  the  residence  there  of  Mr.  Gourlay,  a 
party  had  e.xisted  supporting  extreme  political  opin- 
ions. These,  it  is  true,  were  not  imbitiered  by  any 
feelings  arising  from  difference  of  race;  but  many 
of  the  inhabitants  had  migrated  from  the  United 
States,  to  whose  institutions  they  were  naturally 
partial.  They  gained  over  a  number  of  the  British 
residents,  influenced  by  the  usual  motives,  and  who 
complained  especially  of  the  favouritism  shown  in 
the  granting  of  land.  These  grounds  of  discontent 
were  carefully  investigated  by  the  committee  of 
1828,  and  instructions  issued  by  Lord  Goderich 
which  here,  as  in  the  Lower  Province,  gave  general 
satisfaction.  The  discontented  party,  however,  pro- 
ceeded from  one  step  to  another,  till  Mackenzie, 
Duncombe.  and  other  leaders  scarcely  made  any 
secret  of  their  desire  to  separate  from  Britain  and 
join  the  American  union.  In  1831,  this  party  for 
the  first  time  obtained  a  majority  in  the  Assembly; 
and  though  they  had  hitherto  confined  themselves 
to  complaints  on  particular  subjects,  they  now  com- 
menced a  general  opposition  to  the  royal  govern- 
ment, and  at  length,  as  in  the  other  province,  came 
into  violent  collision  with  the  legislative  council. 
They  transmitted  to  the  king  a  long  list  of  grievan- 
ces, complaining  that  the  offices  in  the  colony  were 
too  numerous,  too  highly  paid,  and  the  holders  re- 

♦  Papers  (29th  January,  1838),  p.  11-14;  (2d  February),  p 


274  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

movable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  crown ;  that  support 
imd  been  uiiuuiy  given  to  particular  religious  es- 
tablishments ;  and  that  Lord  Goderich's  recommend- 
ations had  by  no  means  been  fully  acted  upon. 
They  also  urged,  with  the  same  vehemence  as  in 
the  sister  colony,  the  demand  for  an  elective  legisla- 
tive council.* 

This  union  of  the  two  provinces,  pushing  with 
equal  zeal  the  most  extreme  measures,  brought  af- 
fairs into  a  somewhat  hazardous  position.  When 
Lord  Gosford  and  the  commissioners  were  sent  to 
Lower  Canada,  the  ministry  placed  the  upper  prov- 
ince under  Sir  Francis  Head.  Having  arrived  early 
in  1836,  as  already  related,  he  took  the  straightfor- 
ward course  of  at  once  pubhshing  the  extent  and 
limits  of  his  instructions ;  at  the  same  time  assuring 
the  people  of  his  most  zealous  efforts  to  remove 
every  practical  grievance.  The  Assembly,  however, 
were  by  no  means  satisfied ;  and  another  ground  of 
contest  soon  arose.  Sir  Francis  added  to  the  ex- 
ecutive three  members,  whose  appointment  was 
highly  satisfactory  to  the  popular  party ;  but,  as 
several  weeks  elapsed  without  their  having  been 
consulted  on  any  subject,  they  stated  in  a  lettei 
that  they  considered  themselves  thus  rendered  re- 
sponsible for  measures  in  which  they  were  allowed 
no  share,  and  therefore  tendered  their  resignation. 
While  accepting  it  with  regret,  he  maintained  that 
he  lay  under  no  obligation  to  consult  them  on  every 
measure  ;  but  was  at  perfect  liberty  to  judge  of  the 
occasions  on  which  the  public  interest  might  require 
their  aid.  The  House  of  Assembly  immediately 
took  up  the  affair,  and  having,  agreeably  to  request, 
been  furnished  with  a  copy  of  the  correspondence, 
drew  up  a  report,  and  afterward  a  long  address  to 
the  king,  strenuously  controverting  the  governor's 
doctrine,  and,  in  the  course  of  it,  broadly  charging 
him  with  "  deviations   from  candour   and   truth." 

*  Instructions  to  Lord  Go?ford  and  Sir  Francis  Head,  p.  55 
-65. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  275 

Proceeding  in  tbp  same  spirit.  \hpv  for  the  first  tvne 
stopped  thu  suppiU;.->,  m  cunscqiKace  of  which,  :5ir 
Francis  reserved  all  their  money-bills  for  his  majes- 
ty's decision,  and  rejected  the  application  for  pay- 
ment of  their  incidental  expenses.* 

All  hopes  of  accommodation  being  tlms  closed,  he 
determined,  on  the  28th  of  Alay,  to  make  an  appeal 
to  the  people  by  a  new  election.  It  was  contested 
with  extraordinary  ardour ;  and  a  war  of  manifes- 
toes, proclamations,  and  addresses  was  forthwith 
waged  between  the  parlies.  The  result  was,  that 
in  the  new  Assembly  a  decided  majnrity  supported 
the  constitutional  side.  The  opposite  party  com- 
plained to  the  ministry  that  this  effect  had  been  pro- 
duced by  illegal  means,  by  extraordinary  grants  of 
land,  and  even  by  violence  and  bribery.  The  As- 
sembly, however,  after  inquiry  by  a  committee,  de- 
clared these  allegations  to  be  utterly  false,  express- 
ing, at  the  same  time,  the  strongest  attachment  to 
the  mother  country  and  to  the  governor. 

During  this  tranquil  and  satisfactory  state  of  Up- 
per Canada,  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  lower 
province;  and  Sir  Francis  being  requested  to  state 
what  force  he  could  spare,  his  answer  was,  all.  He 
considered  it  not  only  practicable,  but  desirable,  that 
every  soldier  should  be  removed  out  of  his  district, 
and  a  full  display  thus  made  of  its  loyal  and  peace- 
ful condition.  He  caused  the  arms  to  be  deposited 
in  the  city  hall  of  Toronto,  under  charge  of  the 
mayor,  declining  even  to  place  a  guard  over  them, 
to  prevent  sudden  capture.  In  this  state  of  things 
Mackenzie  determined  to  make  an  attempt  upon  tha 
capital.  Having  a  number  of  small  detached  parties 
throughout  the  province,  who  were  ready  to  obey 
his  mandate,  and  had  even  been  trained  to  the  use 
of  weapons,  he  ordered  them  to  assemble,  on  the  4lh 
December,  on  the  great  road  called  Yonge-street, 

•  Upper  Canada  Papers  (30th  June,  1836)  p.  6,  48-  50. 


276  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

leading  to  Lake  Sitncoe.  Hurrying  by  cross  paths 
through  the  forest,  they  mustered  at  Montgomerie'sf 
tavern,  about  four  miles  from  Toronto.  Their  num- 
bers, at  first  estimated  at  3000,  are  not  supposed  to 
have  exceeded  500.  With  the  view  of  eflecting  a 
surprise,  they  attacked  every  one  going  to  the  city  ; 
among  whom  Colonel  Moodie,  a  distinguished  offi- 
cer, was  wounded,  and  died  in  a  few  hours.  Alder 
man  Powell,  however,  having  shot  one  of  his  as- 
sailants, escaped,  roused  the  governor,  and  gave  the 
alarm;  upon  which  Sir  Francis  ran  to  the  town  hall, 
where  he  found  the  chief  justice  with  a  musket  on 
his  shoulder,  surrounded  by  a  band  of  brave  men 
who  had  hastily  assembled.  The  arms  being  un- 
packed and  placed  in  their  hands,  they  posted  them- 
selves in  a  defensive  attitude  at  the  windows  of  the 
building,  and  of  others  flanking  it.  But  Mackenzie, 
presuming  that  Powell  would  instantly  give  notice, 
did  not  venture  to  advance;  a  pusillanimous  resolu- 
tion, assuredl)',  since  he  could  never  again  expect 
so  favourable  an  opportunity.  By  morning  300 
loyalists  were  mustered ;  and  in  the  course  of  the 
day,  Mr.  Allan  M'Nab,  speaker  of  the  House  of  As- 
sembly, arrived  with  sixty  from  the  Gore  District, 
and  others  from  different  quarters  raised  the  num- 
ber to  500.  On  the  6th  the  force  was  considered 
sufficient  for  offensive  operations  ;  but  the  governor, 
anxious  to  avoid  the  effusion  of  blood,  sent  a  mes- 
sage to  the  insurgents,  inviting  them  to  lay  down 
iheir  arms.  Mackenzie  offered  to  comply,  on  con- 
dition that  a  national  convention  should  be  called, 
allowing  till  two  o'clock  for  the  answer;  but  as  no 
reply  could  be  given  to  this  proposition,  arrange- 
ments were  immediately  made  for  attack  on  the 
following  day. 

On  tlie  7th  December,  at  noon,  the  whole  force 
marched  out.  The  insurgents  had  occupied  an  el- 
evated position  in  front  of  the  tavern,  where,  being 
"n  some  degree  protected  by  houses,  they  endeav- 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  277 

cured  to  make  a  stand  ;  but  the  militia,  advancing  to 
the  charge  with  the  utmost  entliusiasm,  soon  broke 
the  whole  corps,  which  dispersed  in  every  direction, 
Mackenzie  himself  esra[)iiig  with  extreme  precipi- 
tation. They  were  pursued  foui  miles;  two  of  the 
chiefs  were  taken;  the  tavern  was  burned  to  the 
ground;  and  the  revolt  was  so  completely  quaslied. 
that  Sir  Francis  considered  he  might  safely  exercise 
lenity,  and  dismissed  the  greater  part  of  the  prison- 
ers.* 

The  militia,  meantime,  had  been  marching  to 
wards  Toronto  in  great  numbers ;  2600  from  the 
Newcastle  District,  and  in  all  upward  of  10,000. 
Immediate  notice  was  now  issued  that  they  might 
return  to  their  homes ;  and  those  of  the  eastern  dis- 
tricts were  authorized  to  give  their  aid  to  Lower 
Canada.  As  it  was  understood,  however,  that  Dun- 
combe  had  assembled  a  corps  in  the  London  District, 
which  had  been  a  main  seat  of  faction.  Colonel 
M'Nab  was  sent  thither  with  a  sufficient  force.  On 
its  approach  the  chiefs  disappeared,  and  about  300 
of  their  followers  laid  down  their  arms. 

The  insurrection  had  thus  been  entirely  put  down, 
and  upper  Canada  was  everywhere  completely  tran- 
quil, when  a  sudden  danger  arose  which  threatened 
to  become  very  serious.  Mackenzie  fled  to  the  city 
of  Buffalo,  in  which  he  held  several  meetings,  and 
kindled  a  considerable  excitement.  Van  Rensse- 
laer, Sutherland,  and  other  individuals  acquainted 
with  military  service,  presented  themselves  as  lead- 
ers of  an  armament.  A  small  corps  was  assembled, 
which  took  possession  of  Navy  Island,  situated  in 
the  Niagara  chaimel,  between  Grand  Island  and  the 
British  shore,  which  they  fortified  with  thirteen  pie- 
ces of  cannon.  Hence  Mackenzie  issued  a  procla- 
mation in  the  assumed  name  of  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment of  Upper  Canada.     Volunteers  were  invi- 

•  Papers  (16tb  Jan.,  1838),  p.  21,  22;  (29th  Jan.),  p,3,  5. 


278  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

t^rl  from  that  counfry  and  from  the  Staes;  bemg 
aosured  that  out  ol'  the  tea  iniluous  of  acres  which 
victory  would  place  at  their  disposal,  each  should 
receive  300  in  full  property.  Tliere  was  to  be  no 
more  dependence  on  Downing-street ;  the  Assem- 
biy,  council,  governor,  and  officers  were  all  to  be 
elected  by  the  people  Trade  was  to  be  freed  from 
all  restraints ;  and  it  was  added,  that  the  largest  ves- 
sels would  be  enabled  to  ascend  to  Lake  Sui)erior. 
Recruits  continued  flocking  to  this  post  till  their 
numbers  amounted  to  about  a  thousand.  Colonel 
M'Nabsoon  arrived  with  double  that  number  of  mi- 
litia ;  but  he  wanted  materials  for  crossing  the  chan- 
nel and  forcing  the  strong  position  held  by  the  in- 
surgents.* 

All  eyes  were  now  turned  to  the  government  of 
the  United  States,  on  which  the  question  of  peace 
or  war  evidently  depended.  As  soon  as  the  first 
notice  was  received,  there  was  displayed  the  most 
sincere  determination  to  maintain  a  strict  neutrality. 
The  president  issued  two  successive  proclamations, 
warning  the  people  of  the  penalties  to  which  they 
would  become  liable  by  engaging  in  hostilities  with 
a  friendly  power;  and  the  debates  in  Congress  dis- 
played the  most  complete  unanimity  against  any 
measure  which  might  commit  the  American  govern- 
ment in  such  a  contest.  The  leaders  of  opposite 
parties  united  with  one  voice  in  this  sentiment. 
Mr.  Calhoun  declared  that,  "of  all  calamities  which 
could  befall  the  civilized  world,  a  war  with  Great 
Britain  would  at  this  moment  be  the  most  to  be  de-  ' 
plored."  There  was  scarcely  time  for  a  legislative 
enactment;  but  the  president  appointed  General 
JScott,  a  veteran  officer  of  energetic  and  decisive 
character,  to  take  the  command  of  the  disturbed 
frontier. 

Meantime  an  event  occurred  which  created  great 

•  Papers  (2d  February.  1838),  p.  12-14. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  279 

excitement.  A  small  steamer,  named  the  Caro- 
line, was  employed  by  the  insurgents  Delween  Fort 
Schlosser  on  the  American  shore  and  Navy  Island, 
conveying  to  the  latter  troops  and  stores.  Captain 
Drew  was  instructed  by  Colonel  M'Nab  to  intercept 
her  return.  He  did  not  succeed  ;  but,  seeing  her  in 
the  channel,  moored  to  the  American  shore,  deter- 
mined to  attack  her.  He  approached  undiscovered 
to  within  twenty  yards;  and  being  then  asked  the 
countersign,  promised  to  show  it  when  on  deck. 
The  Caroline  immediately  opened  a  fire;  but  the 
British  boarded,  and  in  two  minutes  were  masters 
of  her.  Those  who  resisted  were  killed  or  made 
prisoners  ;  while  others,  who  appeared  to  be  peace- 
able citizens,  were  put  on  shore.  The  vessel  itself, 
which  the  strength  of  the  current  made  it  inconve- 
nient to  tow  across,  was  set  on  fire  and  abandoned, 
when  the  stream  hurried  it  rapidly  to  the  brink  of  the 
great  cataract,  down  which  the  flaming  mass  was 
precipitated.* 

The  destruction  of  the  Caroline  was  soon  follow- 
ed by  the  arrival  of  General  Scott,  who  took  vigor- 
ous and  effective  measures  to  prevent  any  supplies 
or  recruits  reaching  Navy  Island.  Meantime,  the 
force  of  the  assailants  was  continually  augmented; 
jtwo  companies  of  regulars,  with  a  train  of  artille- 
'ry,  had  been  sent  from  Lower  Canada,  and  a  tre- 
mendous cannonade  was  commenced.  The  insur- 
gents, seeing  that  their  position  became  every  day 
more  desperate,  determined  to  evacuate  it,  an  object 

•  This  attack  on  the  Caroline  very  justly  excited  the  highest 
indignation  in  the  United  States.  It  was  manifestly  an  outrage, 
too  flagrant  to  be  borne,  on  their  national  honour  and  their  neu- 
tral rights.  The  vessel  w:is  in  American  waters,  and  moored  to 
the  \meri(:an  shore  ;  nn-i  nothing  ImU  an  actual  state  of  war  be- 
tween the  two  countries  could  justify  a  hostile  attack  under 
these  circumstances.  Furthermore,  the  American  accounts 
deny  that  any  resistance  was  made;  and  affirm  that  the  boat 
was  wholly  unarmed,  and  that  there  was  nothing  to  provoke  th* 
shedding  of  a  drop  of  blood. — Arn.  Ed. 


280  rilSTORV    OF    CANADA 

which   Ihey  effected    on    the  14th  January.     Van 
Rensselaer  and  Mackenzie  were  arrested  by  the 
,  American  authorities,  but  admitted  to  bail. 

Sutherland,  with  a  party  of  the  fugitives,  hastened 
to  the  extreme  west,  where,  being  re-enforced  by 
some  adventurers  in  that  quarter,  they  attempted  an 
establishment  on  Bois  Blanc,  an  island  in  the  Detroit 
channel.  A  body  of  troops,  however,  was  soon 
despatched  against  them  ;  and  a  vessel,  containing 
not  only  supplies,  but  several  chiefs  dignified  with 
military  titles,  was  captured.  Finding  it  impossible 
to  maintain  themselves  there,  they  sought  an  asy- 
lum on  Sugar  Island,  which  belongs  to  the  United 
States.  General  Scott,  meanwhile,  was  hastening 
to  the  place ;  the  governor  of  Michigan,  however, 
addressed  the  refugees,  and  by  mere  dint  of  re- 
monstrance prevailed  upon  them  to  disperse.  At- 
tempts were  made  at  other  points  to  form  tumul- 
tuary assemblages  for  invading  Canada;  but,  under 
the  altered  circumstances,  these  did  not  excite  any 
serious  alarm. 

Meantime  intelligence  of  the  first  insurrectionary 
movements  reached  Britain,  where  it  excited  the 
strongest  sensation.  A  few  of  the  popular  leaders 
exulted  in  the  event  itself,  and  in  the  anticipation 
of  its  triumphant  issue  ;  but  the  nation  in  general 
by  no  means  shared  this  sentiment.  The  Tories, 
though  they  accused  government  of  having,  by  want 
of  »nergy,  prepared  this  convulsion,  expressed  their 
cordial  concurrence  in  all  the  means  suggested  for 
its  suppression.  As  the  house  was  ahout  to  rise  for 
the  Christmas  holyd;iys,  ministers  proposed  tliat,  in- 
stead of  postponing  their  meetings,  as  usual,  till  the 
beginning  of  February,  they  should  fix  it  for  the  16th 
of  .January,  when,  according  to  the  course  of  events, 
suitable  resolutions  might  be  adopted. 

Parliament  had  no  sooner  reassembled  than  in- 
formation arrived  which  left  no  room  to  doubt  that 
the  insurrection  would  be  suppressed  without  hav- 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  281 

ihg  assumed  any  formidable  character.  The  aims 
of  the  government  were  therefore  directed  towards 
reorganizing  the  executive  on  such  a  fooling  as, 
without  suppressing  Canadian  Uberty,  might  secure 
future  tranquillity.  But  it  was  considered  indispen- 
sable, for  the  present  at  least,  to  suspend  the  con- 
stitution of  the  lower  province.  A  council  was  to 
be  named  by  the  queen,  which,  with  the  governor, 
might  exercise  the  functions  now  performed  by  the 
two  legislative  bodies  ;  but  their  powers  were  not  to 
last  beyond  the  1st  of  November,  1840,  nor  were 
any  of  their  enactments,  unless  continued  by  the 
proper  authority,  to  be  valid  beyond  the  1st  of  No- 
vember, 1842. 

Sir  John  Colborne,  then  acting  as  provisional  gov- 
ernor of  Lower  Canada,  was  instructed  to  carry 
these  measures  into  immediate  execution.  The 
ministry,  however,  had  determined  upon  a  farther 
step,  with  a  view  to  the  ultimate  settlement  of  the 
province.  The  Earl  of  Durham  was  solicited  and 
prevailed  upon  to  undertake  its  government,  as  well 
as  that  of  all  British  America,  and  also  to  turn  his 
attention  towards  an  improved  plan  for  its  future 
management.  This  nobleman's  high  reputation  as 
a  statesman,  and  the  liberality  of  his  views  on  po- 
litical subjects,  seemed  to  afford  a  security  that  he 
would  act  with  vigour,  and,  at  the  same  time,  with  a 
strict  regard  to  national  freedom.  He  was  empow- 
ered to  form  a  species  of  representative  council,  com- 
posed of  thirteen  members  from  each  province,  but 
to  use  them  merely  as  advisers,  and  to  call  and  dis- 
miss them  at  pleasure.* 

On  the  29th  May,  1838,  Lord  Durham  arrived  at 
Quebec,  where  he  was  received  in  the  most  cordial 
manner,  for  all  parties  seemed  to  unite  in  expecting 
from  him  a  settlement  of  those  dissensions  which 

*  Correspondenoe  relative  to  the  affairs  of  British  North 
America  («rdeied  by  the  House  of  Commons  to  3e  printed  lllh 
Feb..  1839)  v-  1,  7- 


282  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

had  so  greatly  distracted  the  country.  In  his  suD- 
sequent  progress  to  other  districts,  and  to  Upper 
Canada  as  far  as  Niagara,  he  met  similar  expres- 
sions of  confidence  and  congratulation.  He  was 
soon,  however,  called  to  decide  upon  a  delicate  and 
difficult  question,  which  Sir  John  Colborne  had 
thought  it  expedient  to  reserve  for  his  determina- 
tion. VVolfred  Neilson,  Bouchette,  Viger,  and  other 
individuals  of  some  distinction,  were  lying  in  the 
jail  of  Montreal  charged  with  high  treason.  Some 
strong  punishment  was  necessary  to  mark  their 
crime,  and  deter  from  its  repetition;  yet  an  impar- 
tial jury  could  not  be  expected  for  their  trial,  which, 
besides,  would  have  reopened  all  those  party  ani- 
mosities which  it  was  the  object  of  his  lordship  to 
appease.  Under  this  view  he  adopted  the  following 
course :  The  prisoners,  having  been  induced  to 
make  a  confession  of  guilt,  were  sentenced  to  be 
deported  to  Bermuda,  and  to  be  there  kept  in  strict 
surveillance.  If  they  should  ever  return  to  Canada 
without  leave  from  the  governor,  they  were  to  suf- 
fer the  penalty  of  death.  The  same  was  awarded 
to  Papineau  and  others  implicated  in  the  late  insur- 
rection, but  who,  after  its  disastrous  issue,  had  fled 
the  country.* 

'  As  soon  as  this  ordinance  was  known  in  Britain, 
it  created  an  unusual  excitement  in  the  legislature. 
Lord  Brougham,  in  the  House  of  Peers,  made  a 
^notion,  declaring  it  illegal,  as  condemning  to  death 
without  trial,  and  to  transportation  to  a  colony 
which  was  not  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  gov- 
ernor-general ;  but,  under  the  peculiar  circumstan- 
ces of  the  case,  he  proposed  a  grant  of  indemnity. 
This  vote,  though  strenuously  opposed  by  Lord 
Melboiiiiie,  was  carried  in  the  Upper  House  by  a 
considerable  majority.  Ministers  then  having  re- 
ceived from  the  law-oflicers  of  the  crown  an  un- 

*  Correspondence,  p.  103,  104,  128, 129. 


UNDER    THE    BRITISH.  283 

favourable  report,  at  least  as  to  tlie  last  particular, 
considered  it  impossible  to  make  any  farther  resist- 
ance. They  annulled  the  ordinance  ;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  conveyed  to  Lord  Durliani  expressions 
of  their  regret,  of  their  general  approbation  of  his 
measures,  and  of  the  unaltered  confidence  with 
which  they  regarded  his  administration.*  ', 

Lord  Durham,  however,  was  not  of  a  character  to: 
brook  this  interposition.  He  had,  it  is  true,  passed 
the  limits  of  strict  law:  but  he  maintained  that 
these  were  scarcely  applicable  in  the  critical  and 
convulsed  state  of  the  province  ;  that  the  sentence 
was  lenient;  and  on  the  principle  of  volenti  nulla  Jit 
injuria,  the  parties  concerned  could  not  be  wronged 
by  a  decision  in  which  they  had  cheerfully  acquies- 
ced. In  short,  there  being  no  substantial  injustice 
inflicted.  Lord  Durham  thought  he  had  reason  to 
complain  that  his  scheme  was  not  allowed  a  fair  trial. 
He  had,  perhaps,  an  equal  ground  of  dissatisfaction 
in  reference  to  the  hostile  interference  of  the  oppo- 
sition lords,  and  more  especially  because  the  minis- 
ters, his  employers,  did  not  resist  it  to  the  utmost. 
Yet  it  would  certainly  have  been  more  magnaniinous 
on  his  part  had  he  endeavoured,  under  every  dis- 
couragement, to  do  his  best  to  accomplish  his  un- 
dertaking. He  yielded  too  far  to  passion  and  pride, 
when,  even  before  receiving  the  official  accounts, 
he  publicly  announced  his  intention  of  throwing  up 
the  administration.  He  did  not  even  follow  the  es- 
tablished course  of  requesting  her  majesty's  per- 
mission to  resign,  and  waiting  till  he  received  it. 
In  announcing,  too,  the  disallowance  of  the  ordi- 
nance, he  commented  on  the  decision  with  a  se- 
verity which  was  considered  irregular,  and  tending 
to  compromise  the  royal  authority.  On  the  1st 
November  his  lordship  set  sail  from  Quebec,  and 
on  the  26th  arrived  at  Plymouth.! 

•  Correspondence,  p.  55-€0         +  Ibid.,  p.  206-209,  243,  ZiS. 


284  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

Meantime  a  fresh  storm  of  insurrection  brooded 
over  the  province.  In  the  conrse  of  the  summer, 
even  amid  apparent  quiet,  the  burning  of  a  steam- 
vessel,  called  the  Sir  Robert  Peel,  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence, and  the  acquittal  of  the  murderers  of  Char- 
trand  in  the  face  of  the  clearest  evidence,  showed 
that  the  spirit  of  disaffection  was  still  deeply  cher- 
ished. By  the  beginning  of  winter  arrangements 
had  been  made  for  a  general  rising  of  the  habitans, 
supported  by  individuals  on  the  A  merican  side,  who, 
under  the  title  of  sympathizers,  had  espoused  their 
cause.  Arms  and  ammunition  had  been  clandes- 
tinely introduced ;  and  a  species  of  association, 
bound  by  secret  oaths  and  signs,  had  been  formed 
along  the  frontier.  Lord  Durham  imputes  this 
movement  to  the  proceedings  at  home,  which  had 
shaken  the  confidence  in  his  authority,  and  raised 
the  hopes  of  the  disaffected ;  but  Sir  John  Col- 
borne  considers  that  those  preparations  had  been 
actively  pursued  ever  since  the  preceding  June. 
The  government  of  the  United  States  gave  the  first 
intimation  of  what  was  going  on  to  Mr.  Fox,  the 
British  ambassador  at  Washington.  The  tidings 
were  soon  confirmed  from  other  quarters ;  and  Sir 
John  Colborne  lost  no  time  in  putting  the  province 
in  a  state  of  defence,  and  procuring  an  additional 
force  from  Nova  Scotia.* 

On  the  night  of  the  3d  November,  a  concerted  ri- 
sing took  place  in  all  the  southern  counties  of  Mon- 
treal District ;  but,  owing  to  some  failure  of  arrange- 
ment, the  stations  along  the  Richelieu  were  not 
found  supplied  with  arms  according  to  appointment, 
so  that  most  of  the  inhabitants  there  dispersed  and 
returned  to  their  homes.  The  chief  seat  of  insur- 
rection was  now  farther  west,  between  that  river 
and  the  St.  Lawrence.  There  Dr.  Robert  Nelson, 
Cote,  and  Gagnon  had  collected  about  4000  men, 

*  Correspondence,  p.  106,  125,  174-180,  222,  24fi. 


UNDER    TFIE    BRITISH.  285 

and  established  their  headquarters  at  Napierville. 
Their  first  object  was  to  open  a  communication  with 
tiieir  friends  in  the  States,  for  which  purpose  400 
men  were  detached  to  the  frontier.  There  a  body 
of  British  vohniteers  had  estabUshed  themselves,  by 
whom  the  rebels  were  attacked,  and  obliged  to  re- 
treat with  great  loss.  To  retrieve  this  disaster.  Dr. 
Nelson,  with  upvvard  of  900  men,  marched  against 
the  loyalists.  The  latter,  only  200  strong,  took, 
post  in  Odelltovvn  chapel,  on  which  the  enemy  com- 
menced a  brisk  attack,  but,  after  two  hours  and  a 
half,  were  obliged  to  retreat,  with  the  loss  of  one 
hundred  killed  and  wounded.  The  defenders  had 
an  officer  and  five  men  killed,  and  nine  wounded.* 

Meantime  Major-general  Sir  James  M'Donnell, 
under  orders  from  the  governor,  with  seven  regi- 
ments of  the  line,  crossed  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
marched  upon  Napierville.  The  insurgents,  dis- 
couraged by  former  losses,  after  a  vain  attempt  to 
unite  their  forces,  dispersed  in  every  direction  with- 
out firing  a  shot.  They  still  retained  a  post  at  Beau- 
harnois  ;  but  Colonel  Carmichael,  with  a  detachment 
of  regulars  and  1000  Glengarry  militia,  drove  them 
out,  though  with  the  loss  of  two  men  killed  and  the 
same  number  wounded.  Mr.  Ellice  and  a  party  of 
friends,  who  had  been  made  prisoners  by  them  at 
the  outset,  were  allowed  to  return  to  Montreal.  On 
the  11th,  a  week  only  after  the  first  movement, 
M'Donnell  could  announce  that  the  insurrection  was 
completely  at  an  end.f 

We  must  now  turn  to  Upper  Canada,  where,  even 
before  the  former  outbreak.  Sir  Francis  Head  had 
resigned.  The  immediate  cause  was  the  disappro- 
bation expressed  by  Lord  Glenelg  for  his  removing 
Judge  Ridout  on  account  of  his  democratical  princi- 
ples, and  his  refusing  to  obey  an  order  to  raise  to 
the  bench  Mr.  Bid  well,  late  speaker  of  the  Assem- 

Corresponaence,  p  248  261  262.        t  Ibid.,  p.  260-  263. 
1.—Y 


286  HISTORY    OF    CANADA 

bly,  and  an  opposition  leader.  He  at  the  same  time, 
in  no  measured  terms,  condemned  the  system  of 
conciliation  hitherto  pursued  in  the  Colonial  Office, 
whose  members  he  even  branded  as  republicans; 
insisting  that  a  stern,  uncompromising  maintenance 
of  the  monarchical  principle,  and  the  exclusion  from 
office  of  all  opposed  to  it,  was  the  only  basis  on 
which  Canada  could  be  governed.  Ministers  un- 
willingly accepted  his  resignation;  and  Colonel  Sir 
George  Arthur,  who  had  previously  held  a  similar 
situation  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.* 

The  new  governor  soon  found  himself  involved  in 
difficult  circumstances ;  for  early  in  June,  bands  to 
the  number  of  1000  or  1200  from  the  American  side 
crossed  the  Niagara  channel,  and  endeavoured  to 
excite  the  people  to  insurrection.  They  attacked  a 
party  of  fourteen  lancers  posted  in  an  inn,  and,  by 
setting  it  on  fire,  obliged  them  to  surrender.  But 
no  sooner  did  they  learn  that  Sir  George  had  ar- 
rived at  Niagara,  and  that  the  country  was  rising 
against  them,  than  they  hastily  recrossed  the  fron- 
tier, leaving  about  forty  prisoners,  among  whom 
were  Morrow  and  Waite,  the  first  and  second  in 
command.  In  the  end  of  June  a  smaller  party 
passed  the  St.  Clair  and  invaded  the  Western  Dis- 
trict ;  but  finding  themselves  unsupported,  and  the 
militia  advancing,  they  returned,  after  losing  a  few 
of  their  number,  who  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  pur- 
suers.f 

The  summer  now  passed  in  comparative  quiet- 
ness, though  the  great  movement  at  the  beginning 
of  November  continued  to  be  deeply  felt  along  the 
upper  frontier.  Almost  simultaneously  with  the  ri- 
sing in  Montreal  District,  a  body  of  about  400  sailed 
from  the  vicinity  of  Sackett's  Harbour  and  landed 

♦  Narrative  bv  Sir  Francis  B.  Head,  Bart.  (8vo,  Londoo 
1839,  2(i  edition)!  p.  218-341. 
t  Correspondence,  p.  314-321. 


UNDKU    Tlin    EIMTISII.  287 

lit  Prescott.  On  the  13lh,  Colonel  Young,  wifh  what 
force  he  could  nuisler,  and  aided  by  Captain  Sandoin 
with  an  armed  steamer,  compelled  a  large  proportion 
of  them  to  disperse,  while  the  rest  took  refuge  in  a 
windmill  and  an  adjacent  house  built  of  stone, 
whence  they  could  not  be  dislodged.  Eighteen 
British  were  here  killed  and  wounded.  In  the 
course  of  the  day  (Colonel  Duiidas  arrived  with  four 
companies  from  Kingston,  but  considered  the  build- 
ings, the  walls  of  which  were  three  or  four  feet 
thick,  too  strong  to  be  reduced  without  cannon.  A 
few  guns  and  some  additional  troops  being  brought 
up,  an  attack  was  commenced  on  the  I6th,  when 
the  party  within  the  stone  building,  after  some 
stand,  sought  to  escape  among  the  brushwood,  but 
were  all  captured ;  upon  which  those  in  the  mill 
displayed  a  white  tlag,  and  surrendered  at  discretion. 
The  whole  number  of  prisoners  was  159.  The  mil- 
itia, among  whom  some  lukewarmness  had  been 
suspected,  showed  the  utmost  zeal,  and  nmstered 
to  the  extent  of  5000.* 

The  Niagara  frontier  was  found  so  well  guarded 
that  no  attempt  was  made  there.  But  early  in  the 
morning  of  the  4th  December,  about  350  landed  near 
Sandwich,  set  fire  to  the  steamer  and  to  the  bar- 
racks, and  killed  several  individuals.  They  were, 
however,  no  sooner  attacked  by  a  party  of  militia, 
than  they  fled  either  to  the  woods  or  the  American 
shore,  leaving  twenty-six  killed  and  twenty-five 
prisoners.! 

The  captives  on  the  former  occasion  had  been 
treated  with  extraordinary  lenity;  but  this  forbear- 
ance not  having  produced  the  expected  effect,  and 
being  loudly  complained  of  by  the  inhabitants,  it 
was  judged  necessary  to  exercise  great  rigour  on 
the  present  occasion.  A  considerable  number  of 
the  most  conspicuous  were  accordingly  put  to  death, 
and  the  rest  condemned  to  severe  or  ignominious 
punishments. 

•  Correspondence,  p.  354-361.  t  Ibid.,  p.  369--37a. 


ZE. 


28rt  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL    STATE 


CHAPTER  V. 

Social  and  Political  Slate  of  Canada. 

Different  Classes  of  People.— French  Habitans— Their  Ten- 
ures.—Outward  Appearance.— Mode  of  Living.— Religious 
and  moral  Character.— Manners  in  Upper  Canada.— Mode  ol 
Living. — Native  Indians. — Their  Number.— Catholic  Indians. 
— Hurons  of  Loretto. — Different  Tribes. — Effects  of  Protes- 
tant Conversion.—  Government  Expenditure  on  them.— Pres- 
ent Dress  and  Modeof  living.— Religious  Instruction  in  Lower 
and  Upper  Canada.— Education.— Political  State.— Govern- 
ment under  the  French.— British  Arrangements.— Constitu- 
tion granted  to  the  Catiadas. — Division  into  Upper  and  Lower. 
— Revenue. — Military  Force.— Justice. 

The  inhabitants  of  Canada  are  divided  into  three 
classes,  among  which  no  complete  amalgamation 
has  yet  been  formed.  These  are  the  original  French 
colonists,  commonly  called  habitans ;  the  British 
settlers;  and  the  Indian  tribes. 

The  habitans,  at  the  time  of  the  conquest,  formed 
almost  the  whole  of  the  European  population.  They 
had  occupied  the  best  lands  along  the  banks  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  between  Quebec  and  Montreal ;  a 
considerable  extent  of  those  upon  the  Richelieu; 
and  a  small  space  on  the  Chaudiere,  the  Yamaska, 
the  St.  Maurice,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  great 
river,  as  well  as  a  detached  settlement  on  the  fertile 
shores  of  the  Detroit.  These  tracts  had  been  grant- 
ed to  persons  of  distinction  and  to  favourites,  usually 
in  large  blocks,  which,  as  already  stated,  they  held 
under  the  title  of  seigneurs.  But  it  accorded  not 
with  their  habits  to  clear  and  cultivate  for  themselves 
grounds  covered  with  an  unbroken  forest ;  nor  would 
the  task  be  undertaken  by  farmers  on  the  terms  of 
an  ordinary  lease.     The  proprietors  were  therefore 


OF    CANADA.  289 

obliged  to  make  them  over,  in  small  lots,  under  the 
feudal  title  of  fiefs,  to  hard-working  men,  who,  on 
receiving  this  permanent  interest,  were  willing  to 
encounter  the  toil.  The  annual  payment  or  quit- 
rent  is  in  general  exceedingly  small,  amounting  on 
bome  properties  only  to  10  shilhngs  a  year,  with  a 
bushel  of  wheat  and  two  fowls.  The  seigneur  has, 
besides,  certain  feudal  claims;  a  tithe  on  fish,  mill- 
dues,  and,  more  especially,  payments  on  sale  or 
transference,  which  in  some  cases  amount  to  a  fifth 
of  the  purchase-money.* 

The  occupants  of  these  fiefs  or  farms,  under  the 
burdens  now  specified,  are  virtual  proprietors  of  the 
soil,  which  they  cultivate  with  their  own  hands, 
aided  by  their  families.  They  are  described  as  a 
particularly  contented,  industrious,  and  amiable  race 
of  people  ;  and  the  lots,  though  much  subdivided  in 
the  course  of  succession,  are  still  sufficient  to  main- 
tain them  ill  simple  plenty.  They  till  their  lands 
with  diligence,  though  without  skill,  having  scarcely 
adopted  any  of  the  modern  improvements.  Their 
study  is  to  produce  from  the  farm  everything  they 
need ,  not  only  the  whole  of  their  food,  but  their 
candles,  soap,  and  even  sugar.  From  flax  of  their 
own  raising,  too,  and  the  wool  of  their  own  sheep, 
'they  are  enabled  to  manufacture  almost  every  article 
of  clothing.  Their  houses,  though  generally  built 
of  wood,  and  only  one  story  high,  are  whitewashed, 
and  tolerably  commodious.  A  partition  in  the  mid- 
dle separates  the  kitchen  from  the  principal  apart- 
ment, at  one  end  of  which  are  the  bedrooms.  There 
is  a  garden,  which,  though  in  a  somewhat  rude  and 
straggling  state,  and  cultivated  by  the  females  only, 
yields  a  comfortable  supply  of  the  more  common 
fruits  and  vegetables. 

The  personal  appearance  <)f  the  hahitans  is  pecu- 
liar.    They  are  tall,  thin,  an !,  from  exposure  to  the 

«   Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  376,  377     M'Gregor,  voL  ii.,  p.  426. 


800  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL   STATE 

climate,  almost  as  dark  as  the  Indians.  They  have 
thin  lips  and  often  aquiline  noses,  with  small,  dark, 
and  lively  eyes.  Many  of  the  girls  are  pretty  oval- 
faced  brunettes,  with  fine  eyes,  good  teeth,  and 
glossy  locks.  The  dress  is  nearly  after  the  old  fash- 
ion of  the  French  peasantry.  The  men  wear  the 
cupoL,  a  large  gray  coat  or  surtout,  covering  nearly 
tlie  whole  body,  and  tied  with  a  girdle  of  brilliant 
colours.  On  the  legs  they  have  moccasins,  and  on 
the  head  a  straw  hat  in  summer,  and  a  red  bonnet 
in  winter.  The  hair  is  still  tied  in  a  long  queue 
behind.  The  women  wear  short  jackets  or  bed- 
gowns (mantelets),  with  petticoats  distinct,  and 
sometimes  of  a  different  colour,  and  caps  instead  of 
bonnets ;  a  mode  of  dress  formerly  common  in 
Scotland,  and  not  yet  wholly  disused.  They  have 
long  waists,  and  sometimes  the  hair  tied  behind  in 
a  large  club.  At  church  or  other  occasions  of  full 
dress,  they  adopt  the  English  fashion,  but  display  a 
much  greater  variety  of  showy  colours.  Hair- 
powder  is  sometimes  worn,  and  beet-root  employed 
as  rouge ;  but  both  in  their  dress  and  houses  they 
are  perfectly  clean. 

The  habitans  are  frugal  and  moderate  in  their 
ordinary  diet,  which  mostly  consists  of  different 
kinds  of  soup.  They  have,  however,  their  jourx 
gras,  or  great  feast-days,  particularly  before  and 
after  Lent,  when  large  companies  assemble,  and  the 
board  is  spread  with  every  delicacy  which  their 
larder  can  afford.  The  table  groans  beneath  im- 
mense turkey-pies,  huge  joints  of  beef,  mutton,  and 
pork,  followed  by  a  profusion  of  fruit-puddings. 
Extraordinary  justice  is  said  to  be  done  to  these 
viands,  as  well  as  to  the  rum  which  follows  ;  but  the 
younger  members  of  the  company  are  soon  roused 
by  the  sound  of  the  violin  ;  and  the  dancing,  of  which 
they  are  passionately  fond,  engages  them  till  a  late 
hour.  Weddings,  above  all,  are  celebrated  by  a 
mighty  concourse   of  friends   and    acquaintances. 


OP    CANADA.  2Ui 

Twenty  or  thirty  of  the  country  carriages  bring  in 
^  parties  to  witness  the  ceremony,  which  is  followed 
J  by  feasts  and  dances,  not  unfrequently  prolonged 
;.  «or  several  days.  The  young  people,  however,  have 
'    somewhat  rude  method  of  expressing  their  opin- 

on  of  an  unequal  union,  especially  if  arising  from 
the  relative  age  of  the  parties.  They  assemble  at 
night  in  large  bodies,  sounding  various  discordant 
instruments,  horns,  drums,  bells,  kettles,  accompa- 
nied by  loud  shouts ;  and  a  contribution  to  the  church 
or  some  charitable  purpose  is  indispensable  to  ob- 
tain a  respite  from  this  jocular  persecution.  The 
short  summer  is  necessarily  spent  in  almost  unre- 
mitting labour;  but  when  ice  and  snow  have  cov- 
ered the  ground,  the  gay  season  begins,  and  in  their 
carioles  or  little  chaises  on  steel  runners,  which  pass 
swiftly  over  the  frozen  surface,  they  visit  their 
neighbours,  and  spend  much  time  in  social  inter- 
course.* 

The  Canadian  French,  like  their  forefathers,  pro- 
fess the  Roman  Catholic  religion  with  much  zeal, 
and  in  a  manner  which  occasionally  approaches  su- 
perstition. The  roads  are  marked  by  crosses  erect- 
ed at  the  side;  their  houses  are  filled  with  little 
pictures  of  the  Madonna  and  child,  waxen  images  ol 
saints  and  of  the  crucifixion ;  and  there  is  a  profuse 
expenditure  of  holy  water  and  candles.  They  re- 
luctantly establish  their  dwelling  beyond  hearing  of 
the  church  bells,  and  on  Sundays  the  attendance  is 
crowded.  They  have,  however,  those  inadequate 
notions  as  to  the  sanctity  of  that  day,  which  are 
general  in  Catholic  countries.  When  worship  is 
over,  the  remainder  is  devoted,  without  reserve,  to 
amusement.  "  Sunday,"  it  is  said, ''  is  to  them  their 
day  of  gayety ;  there  is  then  an  assemblage  of  friends 
and  relations ;  the  parish-church  collects  together 
all  whom  they  know,  with  whom  they  have  rela 

*  Bouchette,  vol.  i.,  p.  403.-409.     M'Gregor,  voL  iL,  p.  fitf 
569,  594. 


292  SOCIAL  AND    POLITICAL    STATB 

tions  of  business  or  pleasure ;  the  young  and  old, 
men  and  women,  clad  in  their  best  garments,  riding 
their  best  horses,  driving  in  their  gayest  caleches, 
meet  there  for  purposes  of  business,  love,  and  pleas- 
ure. The  young  habitant,  decked  out  in  his  most 
splendid  finery,  makes  his  court  to  the  maiden 
whom  he  has  singled  out  as  the  object  of  his  affec- 
tions ;  the  maiden,  exhibiting  in  her  adornment  every 
colour  of  the  rainbow,  there  hopes  to  meet  her 
chevalier;  the  bold  rider  descants  upon  and  gives 
evidence  of  the  merits  of  his  unrivalled  pacer;  and 
in  winter  the  powers  of  the  various  horses  are  tried 
in  sleigh  or  cariole  racing  ;  in  short,  Sunday  is  the 
grand  fete."  Even  the  violin  and  the  dance  in  the 
evening  are  not  considered  unsuitable.  Notwith- 
standing these  customs,  the  religious  spirit  of  the 
Canadians  appears  sincere,  and  is  attended  with 
great  benefits.  Their  general  conduct  is  inoffensive 
and  praiseworthy.  Crimes  of  an  atrocious  descrip- 
tion, as  murder  and  violent  assaults  upon  the  pet- 
son,  scarcely  ever  occur.  Property  is  perfectly 
safe,  both  from  the  thief  and  the  robber ;  the  doors 
of  the  houses  stand  open,  and  all  sorts  of  goods  are 
exposed  without  any  precaution.  They  scarcely 
ever  engage  in  those  furious  personal  conflicts 
which,  among  the  Americans  of  English  descent, 
are  often  carried  on  with  such  violence ;  they  know 
neither  duelling,  boxing,  nor  gouging.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  mutually  treat  each  other  with  all  the 
ceremonious  politeness  of  the  French  school.  One 
of  the  first  things  taught  to  a  child  is  to  speak  deco- 
rously, to  bow  or  courtesy  to  its  elders  or  to  stran- 
gers. They  are  said  to  be  generous  in  relieving 
those  in  distress,  liberal  and  courteous  to  all  who 
have  any  claim  on  their  hospitality.  The  custom 
of  parents  and  children  living  together,  often  to  the 
third  generation,  in  the  same  house,  marks  a  mild 
and  friendly  temper.  The  only  form  under  which 
hostile  passions  are  vented  is  that  of  liti^'^tion,  to 


OF    CA.NADA.  293 

which  they  are  immoderately  addicted,  being  fa- 
voured by  the  comparative  cheapness  of  law.  M. 
Bouchelte  defends  this  as  securing  them  from  vio- 
ieiii  and  turbulent  modes  of  terminating  their  differ- 
ences. 

'I'he  habitans  are  not  a  stirring,  enterprising,  or 
improving  race.  They  tread  in  the  steps  of  their 
forefathers,  following  the  same  routine,  and  with 
difficulty  adopting  the  most  obvious  improvements 
of  modern  husbandry.  Although  extensive  tracts 
lie  in  their  immediate  neighbourhood  unoccupied, 
they  resign  them  to  the  English  and  Americans,  and 
have  scarcely  at  all  extended  the  range  of  their  ori- 
ginal settlement.  Even  their  amiable  qualities  tend 
to  retain  them  in  this  stationary  condition ;  to  which 
we  may  add  their  social  disposition,  their  attach- 
ment to  their  kindred,  their  church,  and  the  rites  of 
their  religion.  They  feel  as  if  in  leaving  these 
things  they  would  leave  all.  Their  range  of  in- 
formation has  hitherto  been  very  limited  :  and  their 
priests,  it  has  been  alleged,  by  no  means  favour  the 
diffusion  among  them  even  of  the  first  elements  of 
education ;  so  that  the  majority  of  the  adults  cannot 
even  read  or  write.  But  the  legislature  have  lately 
made  great  exertions  to  improve  them  in  this  respect, 
and  it  is  noped  that  the  rising  generation  will  be 
more  enlightened.* 

The  society  in  Upper  Canada,  with  some  excep- 
tions, presents  a  very  different  aspect.  A  great 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  consist  of  emigrants  re- 
cently aTived  from  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  England, 
who  hav3  not  yet  made  much  change  in  their  ori- 
ginal ideas  and  habits.  Those  established  at  suc- 
cessive periods  during  the  previous  half  century,  arft 
not  represented  by  Mr.  Howison,  Mr.  Talbot,  and 
other  writers  under  a  very  favourable  light.  Dis- 
banded soldiers  and  sailors  were  not  well  calculated 

♦  Bouchette.  vol.  i.,  p.  404-413.  M'Gregor  voL  iL,  p.  468, 
561-567. 


294  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL  STATt 

to  improve  the  race ;  and  even  the  voluntary  emi- 
grants were  not  always  composed  of  the  respectable 
classes,  who,  under  the  pressure  of  the  times,  have 
lately  embraced  this  resource.  The  removal  of  the 
ordinary  restraints  of  society,  and  the  absence  of 
religious  ordinances  and  ministration,  concur  in  giv- 
ing to  them  a  reckless  and  unprincipled  character; 
but  the  increased  means  of  instruction,  and  the  ex- 
ample of  respectable  immigrants,  will,  it  may  be 
hoped,  gradually  effect  a  thorough  reform. 

No  people  in  the  world  live  better  than  the  inhab- 
itants of  Upper  Canada.  The  abundance  of  prod- 
uce, and  the  low  price  at  which  it  can  be  sold,  nat- 
urally inclmes  them  to  take  the  full  use  of  it.  Three 
copious  meals  are  daily  served  up,  called  breakfast, 
dinner,  and  supper,  but  consisting  generally  of  the 
same  component  parts.  They  are  not  very  social 
in  their  daily  habits,  to  which,  indeed,  the  almost 
impassable  state  of  the  roads  opposes  great  obsta- 
cles ;  but  they  are  fond  of  large  parties,  and,  in  a 
favourable  season,  five  or  six  famiUes  often  unite, 
and,  without  any  notice,  drive  to  visit  another  at  the 
distance  of  ten  or  twelve  miles.  Such  an  arrival 
would  not  always  be  very  opportune  in  an  English 
household  ;  but  "  in  this  land  of  plenty,"  the  flour- 
barrel,  the  pork-tub,  and  the  fowl-house  afford  at 
all  times  materials  for  meeting  such  an  emergency; 
and  the  board  is  soon  spread  with  a  plentiful  meal. 
The  dance  is  an  amusement  of  which  they  are  pas- 
sionately fond.  No  inn  is  considered  worthy  of  the 
name,  unless  it  be  provided  with  a  spacious  ball- 
room, which  is  called  into  requisition  as  often  as 
convenience  will  permit.  Intellectual  recreations 
have  not  hitherto  attracted  all  the  attention  which 
thi  y  merit.  The  sources  of  improvement  already 
ailuded  to,  however,  have  already  made  a  great  im- 
pression, and  will,  we  doubt  not,  ere  long  wipe  off 
this  reproach  from  the  Canad'an  people.* 

♦  Talbot,  p.  21,  35-43,  59,  66,  lit      Goutlay,  voL  ti.,  p.  252. 
ShirrefF,  p.  389. 


OF    CANADA.  295 

There  remains  yet  undescribed  a  small  but  inter- 
esting portion,  the  remnant  of  the  Indian  nations. 
It  has  appeared  mysterious  how  tribes  once  so 
powerful,  without  war  or  bloodshed,  should  have 
silently  disappeared,  and  only  a  handful  survive. 
The  occupation  of  their  hunting-grounds  by  Euro- 
pean settlers,  the  introduction  of  destructive  dis- 
eases, particularly  smallpox,  and  the  free  use  of 
intoxicating  liquors,  have,  no  doubt,  materially 
thinned  their  numbers.  Our  researches,  however, 
have  led  us  to  suspect  that  the  diminution  has  not 
been  nearly  so  great  as  is  supposed ;  in  other  words, 
that  the  original  numbers  were  much  exaggerated. 
We  have  had  occasion  to  observe,  that  the  Iroquois, 
the  most  powerful  people  in  America,  and  occupy- 
ing a  territory  extending  several  hundred  miles  in 
every  direction,  were  not  estimated  by  the  French 
to  include  more  than  3000  warriors.  Yet  they  en- 
joyed a  better  climate,  and  were  not  so  entirely  ig- 
norant of  cultivation  as  the  tribes  northward  of  the 
St.  Lawrence. 

The  Indians  under  British  protection  are  dis- 
persed in  small  villages  and  settlements  in  different 
parts  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada.  The  charge 
made  by  Mr.  M'Gregor*  that  they  have  not  been 
kindly  treated  by  the  British  government,  seems 
scarcely  well  founded  ;  for  not  only  do  they  remain 
peaceably  under  her  sway,  but  they  have  repeatedly 
taken  up  arms  in  her  cause  against  the  "  Big  Knives," 
as  they  term  the  Americans.  In  consideration  of 
their  services,  and  in  compensation  for  the  en- 
croachments made  on  their  domain,  each  individual, 
on  repairing  to  a  fixed  station,  receives  a  certain 
amount  of  goods  as  an  annual  present ;  and  this 
grant  affords  the  means  of  estimating  the  number 
residing  within  the  provinces.  In  Lower  Canada, 
in    1828,  it  amounted  to  2922,  exclusive  of  aboyit 

'''■'■  V 

*  Vol.  ii.,  p.  57r 


296  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL    STATE 

450  Micmacs,  or  wandering  tribes,  from  Nova  Sco- 
tia and  New-Brunswick.  The  number  in  Upper 
Canada  to  whom,  about  the  same  time,  donations 
were  made,  was  12,919;*  making  in  the  two  prov- 
inces 15,841.  The  estimate  thus  obtained,  however, 
is  not  quite  so  accurate  as  could  be  wished.  Sev- 
eral thousands  came  from  beyond  the  western  fron 
tier,  a  distance,  in  some  cases,  of  four  or  five  hun- 
dred miles,  and  even  from  the  territory  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  signal  ser- 
vices rendered  by  them  during  the  last  war,  pledges 
had  been  given  which  Britain  must  now  fulfil.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  immense  forest  territory 
which  the  hand  of  cultivation  has  not  yet  approach- 
ed, there  are  doubtless  very  considerable  numbers 
who  retain  their  wild  independence,  and  hold  no 
relations  whatever  with  Europeans.  We  may  no- 
tice, in  particular,  the  vast  tracts  to  the  east  and 
north  of  Quebec,  whence  no  mention  is  made  of 
any  resort  to  the  stations  of  distribution. 

The  Indians  of  Lower  Canada  have  been  convert- 
ed to  the  Catholic  religion,  and  their  spiritual  con- 
cerns are  superintended  by  five  missionaries,  who 
receive  salaries  of  from  $192  to  $336  per  annum. 
They  appear  much  attached  to  these  instructers, 
and  show  a  deep  sense  of  their  religious  duties ;  yet 
they  have  admitted  scarcely  any  change  in  their 
original  habits,  or  made  any  progress  in  industry. 
Their  husbandry,  as  formerly,  is  on  a  small  scale, 
of  the  rudest  description,  and  carried  on  entirely  by 
women  and  old  men.  "  The  Indian  tribes,"  said 
the  late  Lord  Dalhousie,  "  continue  to  be  warlike  in 
their  ideas  and  recollections.  Insignificant  as  are 
some  of  the  tribes  now  in  Lower  Canada,  civilized 
and  accustomed  to  social  life,  there  is  not  one  of 
them  that  does  not  boast  of  the  warlike  days  of 
their  chiefs  and  warriors ;  even  now  the  word  war- 

•  Papers  relating  to  Aboriginal  Tribes.  Ordered  by  House 
of  Commons  to  be  printed,  14th  August,  1834,  p.  23-25. 


OF    CANADA.  297 

rior  is  assumed  by  every  young  man  ;  he  is  trai!:;'(l 
up  to  it,  and  has  a  liigher  idea  of  the  approbation  of 
his  chief,  or  the  consideration  of  white  men,  in  that 
character  of  an  active  liunter  or  warrior,  than  he 
has  of  any  other  object  or  use  of  his  existence." 
The  missionaries,  though  they  execute  their  spirit- 
ual functions  with  zeal  and  dihgence,  not  only  take  i 
no  pains  to  instruct  them  in  reading  or  writing,  but 
effectually  oppose  any  efforts  for  that  purpose,  at 
least  when  made  by  Protestant  teachers.  We  even 
suspect  that  they  indulge  rather  than  check  the 
warlike  spirit  of  their  flocks ;  since  it  appears  that, 
on  the  annual  religious  festival  called  the  grand 
f6te  de  Dieu,  the  Indians  are  in  the  habit  of  march- 
ing to  church  in  military  order,  headed  by  their 
chiefs,  bearing  arms,  and  amid  the  music  of  drums 
and  fifes.* 

A  few  miles  northward  from  Quebec  is  the  Huron 
settlement  of  Loretto,  consisting  of  sixty-seven  men, 
sixty-five  women,  and  forty-seven  children.  This 
poor  remnant  of  a  race  once  so  powerful,  holding 
only  forty  acres  of  land,  derive  a  precarious  subsist- 
ence from  hunting,  fishing,  and  some  trifling  articles 
made  by  their  females.  They  recently  preferred  a 
claim  to  the  fief  of  Sillery,  a  fine  tract  extending  a 
league  along  the  St.  Lawrence,  near  Quebec,  in  vir- 
tue of  a  grant  made  to  their  ancestors  in  1651.  The 
case  being  brought  before  the  courts,  it  was  argued 
by  the  crown  lawyers  that  the  grant  had  been  made 
to  the  Jesuits  in  general  terms,  for  the  purpose  "of 
assembling  the  wandering  nations  of  New  France, 
and  instructing  them  in  the  Christian  religion  ;"  that, 
in  1699,  these  missionaries,  representing  that  the 
Indians  had  quitted  the  spot  on  account  of  the  soil 
being  exhausted,  requested  and  obtained  a  grant  of 
it  for  themselves  ;  and  that  it  remained  in  their  pos- 

•  Papers  relating  to  Aboriginal  Tribes.    Ordered  by  House 
«f  Commons  to  be  printed,  14th  August,  1834,  p.  6-9,  96,  97 


898  SOCIAL    AND   POLITICAL    STATE 

session  till  the  extinction  of  their  order  in  1800 
when  it  devolved  on  the  British  government.  On 
these  grounds  the  judges  decided  against  the  Hu- 
rons.  We  cannot  help  referring,  however,  to  cer- 
tain facts  in  our  historical  narrative,  founded  on  au- 
thorities which  we  incline  to  believe  were  unknown 
to  either  party  in  this  contest.  It  there  appears  that 
the  grant  immediately  followed  the  destruction  of 
the  Huron  nation  by  the  Iroquois,  when  the  Jesuits, 
as  the  only  means  of  saving  the  remnant  of  the 
tribe,  removed  them  to  Quebec.  The  date  and  the 
name  of  the  principal  settlement  seem  to  show,  that 
however  general  the  terms  may  have  been,  the  grant 
was  made  virtually  for  the  benefit  of  these  unfortu- 
nate fugitives,  and  to  the  Jesuits  only  as  their  trus- 
tees. If  this  be  admitted,  we  know  not  how  far 
their  quitting  it  at  one  time  for  another  spot,  with- 
out any  formal  relinquishment,  could  be  considered 
as  vacating  their  title.  On  the  loss  of  their  cause, 
they  sent  two  deputies  to  London,  who  very  ear- 
nestly solicited  an  interview  with  their  great  father. 
Sir  George  Murray  evaded  this  demand,  but  received 
them  kindly,  and  though  he  could  not  reopen  a  le- 
gal decision,  offered  them  grants  of  crown  lands  in 
other  quarters;  but  they  replied  that  an  arrange- 
ment which  would  separate  them,  and  require  a  com- 
plete change  in  their  mode  of  life,  could  not  be  felt 
by  them  as  any  real  advantage. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Three  Rivers  are  82  Algonquins, 
and  near  St.  Francis  and  Be<;ancour,  on  the  opposite 
side,  359  Abenaquis.  These  tribes  inhabit  rude  vil- 
lages, composed  of  very  poor  bark  huts,  though 
somewhat  better  than  the  ordinary  wigwams.  They 
once  possessed  a  considerable  extent  of  land,  the 
greater  part  of  which  has  been  wrested  from  them  un- 
der various  pretences  by  designing  individuals ;  and 
to  prevent  such  frauds,  it  is  proposed  that  no  aliena- 
tion of  property  by  these  untaught  tribes  shall  be 
held  valid  until  it  has  been  sanctioned  by  govern- 


OF    CANADA.  299 

inent.  Farther  down  the  river  are  three  settle- 
ments of  Iroquois,  one  at  Sault  St.  Louis  and 
CiiughiKivvaga,  amounting  to  967 ;  another  at  St.  Re- 
gis  of  348 ;  and  a  third  of  282  at  the  Lake  of  the 
Two  Mountains.  This  tribe,  once  powerful  and 
even  intelHgent,  are  now  indolent,  wretched,  and 
despised  by  their  own  countrymen.  Those  of  Sault 
St.  Louis  possess  some  land,  though,  from  misman- 
agement, it  produces  little ;  and  a  late  claim  for  an 
addition,  founded  on  minute  boundary  questions, 
was  fruitless,  though  they  also  sent  deputies  to  Lon- 
don to  enforce  it.  At  the  Lake  of  the  Two  Mount- 
ains are  likewise  355  Algonquins  and  250  Nipissings. 
These  have  no  land  to  cultivate,  but,  by  their  ac- 
tivity in  hunting  and  supplying  Europeans  with  furs, 
they  have  placed  themselves  in  a  more  comfortable 
condition  than  any  other  Indians  in  Lower  Canada, 
They  complain  much,  however,  of  the  extended 
colonization  on  the  Ottawa,  by  which  their  hunting 
grounds  are  greatly  narrowed.* 

In  Upper  Canada,  along  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Lake  Ontario,  the  Mississaguas  are  the  leading  tribe. 
Those  of  Kingston  and  Gananoqui,  only  82  in  num- 
ber, are  described  as  worthless  and  depraved ;  but 
such  as  dwell  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte  and  Rice  Lake, 
amounting  respectively  to  143  and  317,  have  been 
.converted  to  Christianity,  and  are  much  improved. 
'On  the  bay  are  also  319  Mohawks,  many  of  whom 
have  applied  themselves  to  agriculture,  and  even 
adopted  in  some  degree  the  European  dress,  though 
mixed  in  a  grotesque  manner  with  their  native  at- 
tire. On  the  river  Credit,  which  falls  into  the  west- 
ern part  of  Ontario,  are  180  of  the  same  nation,  who 
have  been  greatly  civilized  by  their  conversion. 
Around  Lake  Simcoe  and  its  vicinity,  about  550 
Chippewas  reside,  under  their  chief,  Yellowhead. 
These  also  have  expressed  a  strong  desire  for  in- 

*  Papers  relating  to  Aboriginal  Tribes     Ordered  by  House  of 
Conunona  to  be  printed,  14th  August,  1834,  p.  23,  35,  34, 60, 8i. 


300  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL    STATE 

struction  and  the  knowledge  of  religion,  but  hava 
not  yet  experienced  those  benefits  in  an  equal  de- 
gree. The  banks  of  the  Grand  River,  which  falls 
into  Lake  Erie  to  the  extent  of  six  miles  on  each 
side,  was,  by  a  proclamation  of  General  Haldimand, 
set  apart  for  the  Mohawks  and  Six  Nations,  who  oc- 
cupy it  to  the  number  of  about  2000.  Some  part  of 
these  lands  has  been  sold  with  the  consent  of  gov- 
ernment, and  the  proceeds  lodged  in  the  British 
funds,  yielding  an  annual  revenue  of  jG1500,  which  is 
distributed  among  them  in  goods.  They  still  hold 
260,000  acres  of  an  excellent  soil,  over  which  they 
have  spread  themselves  in  small  villages,  and  many 
of  them  attempt  the  simpler  modes  of  farming. 
Farther  west  are  the  Munseys,  on  the  Thames,  445 
in  number,  and  309  Hurons,  connected  with  the 
French  settlement  on  the  Detroit,  and  converts  to 
the  Catholic  form  of  worship.* 

With  the  last  exception,  all  the  tribes  in  Upper 
Canada,  till  within  these  few  years,  remained  in 
their  primitive  state  of  rudeness  and  ignorance. 
They  are  now,  however,  wiUing  converts  to  the 
Christian  faith,  receiving  instruction  in  reading  and 
writing:  their  morals  are  greatly  improved,  and,  in 
short,  the  way  is  paved  for  their  adopting  generally 
the  habits  of  civilized  life.  This  good  work  has 
been  almost  entirely  accomplished  by  teachers  from 
the  United  States,  belonging  to  the  "  Canada  Con- 
ference Missionary  Society,"  auxiliary  to  that  of 
the  Methodist  Church  of  New- York.  The  Indians 
have  always  shown  themselves  desirous  to  be  in- 
structed. In  1827,  the  tribes,  when  receiving  pres- 
ents at  the  remote  station  of  Drummond  Island,  in- 
timated to  the  agent  that  there  was  at  Michillimack- 
inac  a  school,  or  place  where  the  natives  are  taught 
10  live  as  the  whites  do,  "  to  mark  their  thoughts  on 

*  Papers  relating  to  Aboriginal  Tribes.  Ordered  by  HouH 
of  Commons  to  be  printed,  14th  August,  1834,  p.  27-30, 


OF    CANADA.  301 

paper,  and  to  think  the  news  from  books  (read  and 
write)."  It  was  in  ihi-ir  power  to  send  their  children 
thither  "  to  get  sense ;"  but  not  being  partial  to  the 
Big  Knives,  and  hearing  that  their  great  father  at 
York  was  teaching  their  brethren  to  "  cut  up  the 
ground  and  be  beloved  of  the  Great  Spirit,"  they 
would  rather  be  instructed  by  him.  In  the  same 
year,  the  Cliippeways  at  Gwillinibury,  through  their 
chief  Yellowhead,  delivered  successive  strings  of 
wampum,  importing  thai  they  wished  to  be  settled 
together,  to  pursue  agriculture,  and  "  to  worship  that 
God  which  is  known  lo  the  whites  in  the  good  book." 

The  work  of  conversion  and  civilization  was 
already  proceeding,  through  the  exertions  of  the 
New-York  missionaries.  Their  first  success  was 
on  the  river  Credit,  in  the  Home  District,  where 
they  were  greatly  aided  by  Mr.  Peter  Jones,  alias 
Kakkewaquonaby,  the  son  of  a  Welsh  father  by  an 
Indian  mother,  and  thoroughly  acquainted  with  their 
customs  and  language.  They  formed  themselves 
into  a  village,  where  Sir  Peregrine  Maitland  built 
for  them  twenty  houses ;  they  added  fifteen  for 
themselves,  with  a  mill;  and  the  Methodist  Society 
aided  them  in  erecting  a  chapel,  schoolhouse,  and 
workshop.  They  now  renounced  the  "  fire-waters" 
(spirits),  the  effects  of  which  had  been  so  pernicious ; 
and  without  giving  up  hunting,  combined  with  it  the 
culture  of  the  ground  and  the  rearing  of  cattle.  Ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Magrath,  they 
had,  in  March,  18'28,  brought  thirty-five  acres  into 
cultivation,  and  possessed  nine  yoke  of  oxen,  twelve 
cows,  and  six  horses.  The  adults  were  taught  to 
get  by  heart  the  most  essential  doctrines  of  religion ; 
but  for  the  children  of  both  sexes  schools  were  es- 
tablished, attended  by  thirty-five  boys  and  thirty- 
six  girls.  The  Mississaguas  near  Belleville  soon 
followed  the  example  of  their  brethren,  and,  with  the 
aid  of  the  society,  formed  a  village  on  Grape  Island, 
in  the  Bay  of  Quints.     Finding  this  position  too 

IT— Z 


302  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL    STATE 

limited,  they  applied  for  more  laud,  and  were  allow 
ed  to  select  the  requisite  nuuiber  of  vacant  lots  in 
the  Midland  District.  Tliis  salutary  process  was 
soon  afterward  extended  to  the  Mississaguas  on 
the  borders  of  Rice  Lake,  and  of  Mud  Lake,  north- 
ward of  Cobourg.  They  occupied,  by  right,  the  isl- 
ands on  the  former,  and,  on  tiie  petition  of  their 
teachers,  were  allowed  besides  1200  acres  of  waste 
land.  Improvement  was  next  extended  to  the  Chip- 
peways,  near  Lake  Simcoe.  They  were  entitled  to 
three  islands,  but  Sir  John  Colborne  thought  it  more 
for  their  beneht  that  they  should  be  located  on  its 
northwestern  shore,  and  on  the  road  to  Lake  Huron. 
In  these  objects  about  $14,400  were  spent,  chiefly 
saved  out  of  the  annual  presents.  Another  estab- 
lishment has  been  formed  at  Munseytown,  on  the 
river  Thames,  and  it  appears  that  much  has  been 
done  among  the  Six  Nations,  particularly  the  Mo- 
hawks, on  the  Grand  River.  In  short,  there  seems 
no  room  to  doubt  that  the  whole  of  this  savage  race 
will  soon  be  brought  within  the  pale  of  Christianity 
and  civilization. 

Vehement  objections  have  been  taken  against  the 
religious  body  by  whom  this  change  has  been  ef- 
fected. They  are  accused  of  propagating  the  polit- 
ical ci'eed  of  their  own  country,  accompanied  with 
sentiments  of  hostility  to  the  Established  Church. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  any  disloyal  or 
turbulent  proceedings  have  resulted  ;  and  when  they 
are  doing  so  much  good,  it  would  certainly  be  very 
inexpedient  to  obstruct  their  operations,  until  some 
efficient  substitute  shall  be  found.  Sir  John  Col- 
borne expressly  says,  that  the  established  clergy 
have  not  effected  any  Indian  conversions;  and  the 
worthy  Bish(^  of  Quebec  candidly  observes,  that, 
whoever  were  the  mstruuienis,  the  effect  must  be 
a  source  of  satisfaction ;  and  that  the  hand  of  God 
seems  to  be  visible  in  it.    The  society  allow  about 


OP   CANADA.  303 

$200  or  $250  a  year  to  their  missionaries,  and  main- 
tain ten  scho()l>,  attended  by  ^fjl  fiupils. 

The  Indians,  as  already  observed,  have  certain 
fixed  stations  to  which  they  resort  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  their  annual  presents.  Tliese  are,  in 
Lower  Canada,  Quebec,  to  which,  in  1627,  there 
came  652;  St.  Francis,  541;  Caughnawaga,  907; 
Lake  of  Two  Mountains,  887;  and  St.  Hegis,  348. 
In  Upper  Canada  they  are,  Kingston,  859 ;  York, 
781:  Fort  George  (Niagara),  1857;  Amherstburg, 
5906;  and  Drummond  Island,  3516.  The  expense 
became  very  large  during  the  war,  when  their  ser- 
vices were  so  valuable.  Between  1813  and  1810  it 
averaged  $720,000  a  year.  Since  that  time  it  has 
been  reduced  to  about  $76,800 ;  which,  with  $21,120 
for  management,  raises  the  Indian  department  to 
$97,920  a  year.  This,  in  Upper  Canada,  is  esti- 
mated at  185.  9rf.  to  each  individual,  for  which  slen 
der  remuneration  some  travel  500  miles.  Referen- 
ces have  been  made  from  the  Colonial  Office  to 
ascertain  whether  this  sum  might  not  be  still  farther 
reduced,  and  paid  in  money,  by  which  the  estimates 
could  be  formed  with  greater  precision.  To  the 
first  point,  it  has  been  replied  by  the  governors,  that 
the  donation  is  one  to  which  we  are  bound  by  the 
faith  of  treaties,  made  in  return  for  important  ser- 
vices ;  and  its  discontinuance  would  excite  the  deep- 
est indignation,  and  provoke  an  hostility  which 
might  be  attended  with  disastrous  consequences. 
Probably,  like  all  ru  ie  nations,  the  Indians,  instead 
of  viewing  these  gifts  as  in  any  degree  hmniliating, 
pride  themselves  upon  them  as  testimonies  of  re- 
spect, perhaps  even  as  a  species  of  tribute.  As  to 
the  payment  in  money,  it  was  deprecated  in  the 
strongest  terms  by  almost  all  the  chiefs  and  those 
interested  in  their  welfare;  because  the  immediate 
consequence  would  be  its  conversion  into  spirits, 
thereby  causing  a  serious  injury  instead  of  a  benefit. 
Since  the  diffusion  of  civilization,  many  of  the  In- 


304  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL    STATE 

dians  have  consentefl,  and  even  desired,  to  exchange 
these  presents  for  houses,  implements  of  agriculture, 
and  other  useful  objects.  A  considerable  number 
have  even  begun  to  wish  for  money,  which,  happily, 
they  no  longer  abuse  as  formerly,  but  rather  find 
the  most  convenient  instrument  in  procuring  uhat- 
ever  they  may  happen  to  want.  Asance,  a  chief, 
said,  that  at  York  "  he  found  it  convenient,  when 
hungry,  to  be  able  to  put  his  hand  into  his  pocket, 
and  find  something  jingling  there  for  which  he  could 
get  bread."* 

The  Indians,  as  formerly  observed,  retain  in  gen- 
eral their  origiual  fashion  of  dress ;  but,  instead  of 
composing  it  entirely  of  the  skins  of  wild  animals, 
the)'^  have  adopted,  as  more  commodious,  materials 
of  English  manufacture.  For  the  outer  covering, 
or  great  coat,  a  blanket  is  decidedly  preferred  ;  the 
shirt  beneath  is  chiefly  of  calico  or  prhited  cotton ; 
the  leggins  and  pouches  of  common  cloths.  The 
gartering,  of  gaudy  colours,  serves  for  binding  and 
ornamental  borders.  The  moccasins  only,  an  arti- 
cle so  extremely  suited  to  their  habits,  cannot  be 
composed  of  any  better  material  than  their  deer- 
skin. When,  however,  any  particular  piece  of 
finery  strikes  their  fancy,  they  eagerly  seek  to  pro- 
cure it,  and  combine  it,  often  fantastically,  with 
their  old  habiliments.  The  vicinity  of  Eurnpeaas, 
where  it  does  not  induce  the  destructive  habit  of 
intoxication,  affords  them  various  means  for  better- 
ing their  condition.  A  ready  sale  for  venison,  wild 
ducks,  and  other  feathered  game,  and  for  the  fish 
which  they  spear,  is  found  among  settlers  who  have 
themselves  little  leisure  for  angling  or  the  chase. 
The  skins  and  furs  also  of  the  animals  caught  by 
them  are  readily  bought  by  the  merchants.  The 
women  make  baskets,  trays,  and  other  utensils,  of 
birch  bark,  and  sometimes  of  the  inner  rind  of  the 

♦  Papers  relating  to  Aboriginal  Tribes,  &c..  p.  16,  17.  4St 
135-137.  127--132.  136,  51.  63.     Martin,  p.  218 


OF    CANADA.  305 

basswood  and  white  ash ;  which,  when  ornamented 
with  porcupine  quills,  dyed  in  beautiful  colours,  form 
elegant  articles  of  furniture.  Their  moccasins,  sim- 
ilarly adorned,  are  often  purchased  by  Eunjpeans 
for  winter  use.  They  cannot,  however,  be  depended 
upon  for  making  or  procuring  any  article  to  order. 
They  produce  and  bring  their  commodities  to  mar 
ket  when  it  suits  their  own  convenience ;  and  tlicy 
are  disposed  to  drive  a  pretty  hard  bargain,  espe- 
cially the  females,  on  whom  that  task  usually  de- 
volves. The  converted  Indians  are  said  to  display 
a  simple,  fervent,  and  sincere  devotion.  They  pay 
a  particular  regard  to  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath; 
and  while  singing  hymns  on  the  evening  of  that  day, 
their  rich  soft  voices,  rising  on  the  still  air,  are  ex- 
tremely sweet.  This  principle  of  piety,  having  pro- 
duced the  valuable  fruit  of  inducing  them  to  re- 
nounce the  ruinous  habit  of  intoxication,  has  made 
a  most  happy  change  in  their  condition;  and  sinco 
the  evils  incident  to  the  savage  have  thus  been  re- 
moved, perhaps  the  admirer  of  the  picturesque  in 
human  life  may  not  feel  impatient  for  that  thorough 
amalgamation  with  Europeans  which  some  of  their 
friends  ardently  desire.  They  may  be  willing  that 
some  trace  should  still  survive  of  the  peculiar  cos- 
tume, aspect,  and  occupations  of  this  remarkable 
aboriginal  race.* 

The  means  of  religious  instruction  in  Lower  Can- 
ada have  long  existed  on  a  liberal  scale.  The  great 
majority  of  the  inhabitants,  as  formerly  observed, 
are  French  Roman  Catholics.  They  support  their 
clergy  by  a  contribution  of  a  twenty-sixth  part  of 
the  produce  of  their  lands,  which  does  not,  howev- 
er, as  has  been  sometimes  represented,  form  a  com- 
pulsory assessment,  since  Protestant  converts  may 
discontinue  payment.  This  affords  to  upward  of 
200  vicaires  and  cures  an  average  income  of  $1440 

•  Weld,  p.  379--382.     Backwoods,  p.  1 62-- 170. 


306  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL    STATE 

per  annum,  which,  in  Oanarla,  is  vpry  liberal.  They 
are  described  as  respectable  in  character  and  attain- 
ments,  very  attentive  to  their  parishioners,  and  ex- 
tremely beloved  by  them.  They  have  been  accu- 
sed as  hostile  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  ;  yet  no 
mention  is  made  of  any  opposition  made  by  them 
to  the  late  remarkable  spread  of  elementary  schoijls. 
The  bishop,  who  has  under  him  two  coadjutors  and 
four  vicars-general,  receives  from  government  a  sti- 
pend of  $4800  a  year.  There  are  also  monastic 
establishments,  containing  upward  of  300  monks 
and  nuns.  The  English  Church  has  assigned  for  its 
support  a  seventh  of  all  the  lands  unoccupied  by  the 
habitans  and  formed  into  townships.  Tiiis  propor 
tion  appears  large,  and  has  even  been  complained  of 
as  such,  yet  it  has  not  hitherto  produced  any  great 
revenue.  The  clergy  of  this  church  are  at  present 
forty  in  number,  at  the  head  of  whom  is  the  Bishop 
of  Quebec,  with  a  stipend  of  $4800  a  year.  There 
are  fourteen  Presbyterian  ministers  connected  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  partly  paid  by  government; 
and  also  twelve  Methodists  of  the  VVesleyan  per- 
suasion. 

Upper  Canada,  as  already  hinted,  was  long  miser- 
ably destitute  of  the  means  of  religious  instruction. 
In  1800,  according  to  Mr.  Talbot,  there  were  only 
three  Episcopal  clergymen  in  the  country;  in  1819 
they  had  increased  to  ten ;  and  in  1824  were  still 
only  sixteen.  Since  that  time  effective  measures 
have  been  taken  to  supply  this  great  deficiency. 
There  are  now  forty-three  clergymen  belonging  to 
the  English  Established  Church ;  and  two  archdea- 
cons, at  Toronto  and  Kingston,  subject  to  the  Bishop 
of  Quebec,  have  each  jC300  a  year.  The  remainder 
of  the  clergy  received,  in  1835,  an  income  of 
je6784  Us.  8d.,  of  which  i:5484  I8s.  was  defrayed 
from  the  proceeds  of  the  ecclesiastical  reserves, 
which,  as  in  Lower  Canada,  consist  of  one  seventh 
of  the  uncultivated  lands  ;  the  rest  was  paid  out  of 


OF   CANADA.  807 

the  crown  revenue.    The  Catholics  have  twenty- 
four  priests,  of  wlioin  llie  bislxip.  bearing  the  i'.  o 
of  regiopolis,  has  JC500 ;  the    rest  receive  jGlOOO 
annually  tlivided    among   them,  out    of   ihe  public 
purse.     From  the  same  fund  were  puid,  in  1835,  to 
the  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  jCl586  ;  to 
those  of  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  Upper  Canada, 
JE700;  jCni  was  granted  to  the  fnnd  for  building 
Catholic  churches;  jG550  was  given  for  the  same 
purpose  to  the  Scottish  Church ;  and  £550  to  the 
Wesleyan  Methodists.     From  this  fund  was  also  al- 
lowed jG2344,  ll5.  8d.  for  missionaries  of  the  Church 
of  England.     There  are  said  to  be  also  twenty-eight 
Methodist  and  forty  or  fifty  Baptist  churches,  which 
appear  to  be  supported  by  the  congregations. 

The  means  even  of  the  most  common  education 
were  long  extremely   deficient  in  Canada.     This 
want  was  equally  felt  in  the  lower  province,  where 
the   Catholic  clergy,  though   diligent  in  their  reli- 
gious ministrations,  either  opposed  or  did  nothing 
to  forward  elementary  instruction.     They  particu- 
larly interfered  to  prevent  attendance  on  the  schools 
organized  in  1817  by  what  was  termed  the  Royal 
Institution,  as  being  chiefly  under  the  management  of 
Church  of  England  clergymen.     In  1829.  however, 
the  legislature  voted  for  this  object  $30,907,  which 
was  gradually  increased  to  npward  of  .$96,000.     In 
that  year  the  number  of  scholars  was  14,753,  of 
whom  only  about  a  third  paid  fees.     In  18:}5.  the 
number  of  free  scholars  had  risen  to  72,498,  of  those 
paying  to  25,160  ;  showing  thus  a  wonderful  increase 
both  in  the  gross  number  and  in  the  proportion  of 
those  who  defrayed  their  own  charges.     In  1836, 
however,  the  vote  of  the  House  of  Assembly  for 
this  patriotic  purpose  was  negatived  by  the  Legisla- 
tive Council;  a  step  which  seems  not  unworthy  of 
the  severe  animadversions  made  on  it  by  the  popular 
leaders.     The  Council  stated  that  their  motive  was 
to  induce  the  people  to  contribute  more  towards  the 


308  SOCIAL    AND    POLITICAL    STATB 

education  of  their  families.  This  was  admitted  lo 
lie  desirable  an  aii  ullunale  object;  but  it  could  not 
justify  the  abrupt  withdrawal  of  the  means  by  which 
nearly  40,000  children  were  educated,  without  allow- 
ing time  or  even  legal  authority  to  substitute  any 
other.* 

In  Upper  Canada  the  government  is  making  great 
exertions  to  remove  that  cloud  of  ignorance  in  which 
the  country  was  once  involved.  A  college  at  To- 
ronto is  supported  on  a  liberal  footing.  There  are 
also  grammar  schools  in  every  district,  to  the  teach- 
ers of  which  $480  yearly  is  allowed  by  the  legisla- 
ture. The  scholars  attending  them  amount  in  all  to 
about  350.  The  sum  of  835,424  was  also  granted 
in  1835  for  the  support  of  common  schools,  estima- 
ted to  amount  to  several  hundreds,  and  to  educate 
about  20,000  children.  In  the  same  year  the  legis- 
lature voted  $864  and  $432  to  the  Mechanics'  In 
stituies  at  Toronto  and  Kingston. 

The  political  constiiution  of  Canada  has  under- 
gone various  changes.  Under  French  dominion, 
after  the  early  compani-es  were  broken  up,  the  sover- 
eign assumed  a  jurisdiction  almost  quite  absolute, 
not  being  checked,  as  at  home,  by  the  influence  of 
the  nobility  or  the  parliaments.  The  necessity  of 
delegation,  however,  and  fears  that  the  governor 
should  aim  at  independence,  induced  the  cabinet  to 
divide  the  administration  among  several  heads;  a 
system  which  rendered  it  weak  rather  than  free, 
producing,  as  we  have  seen,  frequent  and  violent 
collision  among  its  members.  These  jealous  feel- 
ings, moreover,  caused  the  royal  council  to  lend  a 
ready  ear  to  complaints  from  every  class.  The 
clergy,  especially  the  monastic  and  missionary  or- 
ders, who  had  taken  a  large  share  in  the  first  settle- 

»  This  arbitf  iry,  impolitic,  and  cruel  conduct  of  the  Legisla- 
t.ve  Council  greatly  exasperated  the  Canadians,  as  well  it 
mieht;  and  nothing,  perhaps,  contributed  more  to  produce  the 
violent  scenes  by  which  it  was  not  long  after  followed. — Am.  Ed 


OF    CANADA,  309 

ment  and  were  rif^hly  enrlowerl,  enjoyed  great  influ- 
ence both  in  tiie  colony  und  wiiii  liie  court. 

In  1759  Canada  wns  conquered  by  the  arms  of 
Britain,  and  by  the  treaty  which  followed  was  per- 
manently annexed  to  her  empire.  It  is  generally 
admitted,  that  no  people,  completely  subdued,  were 
evermore  liberally  treated  than  the  French  colonists 
•n  that  country.  Not  only  was  their  property  pre- 
served inviolate,  but  they  were  also  invested  with 
all  the  rights  of  citizens,  and  rendered  admissible  to 
every  office  on  the  same  footing  as  British  subjects. 
The  Catholic  religion  did  not  merely  enjoy  full  tol- 
eration, but  the  large  property  with  which  it  had 
been  invested  was  preserved  to  it  entire.  As  a  far- 
ther boon,  the  law  of  England,  civil  and  criminal,  in- 
cluding the  trial  by  jury,  was  introduced.  The  im- 
proved security  afforded  by  the  latter  code  to  person 
and  life  was  duly  appreciated ;  but  in  regard  to  prop- 
erty and  civil  jurisdiction,  the  coutume  de  Paris,  with 
the  ordinances  of  the  French  kings,  though  forming 
a  complicated,  perplexed,  and  inconvenient  system, 
had  been  so  interwoven  with  the  habits  of  the  set- 
tlers, that  they  could  not  be  persuaded  to  prefer  one 
decidedly  better.  The  civil  law,  indeed,  had  scarce- 
ly a  fair  trial,  being  administered  by  somewhat  un- 
learned judges,  partly  naval  and  military  officers, 
partly  citizens  not  bred  to  the  profession.  In  the 
prospect  of  a  contest  with  the  United  Colonies,  it 
became  necessary  to  conciliate  the  Canadians,  and 
a  statue  (I4th  Geo.  III.,  cap.  83)  was  passed,  called 
the  "  Quebec  Act,"  founded  upon  a  report  of  the  ; 
crown  lawyers,  by  which  the  French  system  was 
revived  in  the  province,  with  the  exception  of  the 
criminal  branch,  which  continued  to  be  similar  to 
that  of  England. 

Although  the  rights  of  person  and  property  had 
thus  been  from  the  first  secured,  the  people  had  not 
yet  been  admitted  to  any  share  of  political  privilege. 
The  administration,  civil  and  military,  was  exercised 

I A  A. 


310  SOCIAL   AND    POLITICAL   8TATE 

by  one  individual,  uniting  the  functions  of  governor 
and  comniander-iu-oliief;  and  though  the  Quebec 
Act  provided  that  there  should  be  a  legislative  coun- 
cil of  at  least  twenty-three  members,  the  nomination 
rested  entirely  with  the  sovereign.  The  natives, 
long  unaccustomed  to  any  other  species  of  rule,  for 
some  time  felt  no  dissatisfaction  ;  but  at  a  later  pe- 
riod, when  they  had  opportunities  of  observing  the 
operation  of  a  more  liberal  system  in  England  and 
the  United  States,  a  desire  for  improvement  arose, 
and  in  17S4  a  petition  was  presented  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  representative  constitution.  The 
British  settlers  took  the  lead,  but  many  of  the  French 
joined  them.  Their  request  was  not  granted  till 
1791,  when  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  and  carried  in  Parlia- 
ment a  scheme  of  government  resembling  that  of 
the  mother  country. 

By  this  act  the  upper  province,  which  had  long 
been  rising  in  importance,  was  separated  from  the 
lower,  and   a   distinct   constitution    appointed   for 
each.     The  representative  body  in  the  latter  con- 
sists of  eighty-eight  members,  four  from  each  of 
the  cities  of  Quebec  and  Montreal,  two  from  Three 
Rivers,   one  from  William  Henry  or  Sorel,  and  a 
varying  number,  but    most   commonly   two,  from 
each  of  the  counties.     The  qualification  of  electors 
in  the  country  arises  from  the  possession  of  land- 
ed property  amounting  to  40.y.  a  year;  in  the  towns, 
from  owning    a   dwelling-house  of  £5  a  year,  or 
renting  one  of  jCiO;  and  no  religious  disability  ex- 
ists.    The  members    hold  their   seats  during  four 
years,  and  there  must  be  an  annual  session,  which 
usiially  continues  through  the  months  of  January, 
February,  and  March.     The  governor  has  the  same 
power  in  convoking,  proroguing,  or  dissolving  them, 
that  the  king  has  in  England.     For  the  last  three 
sessions,  the  members  have  been  allowed  ten  shil- 
lings a  day  while  sitting,  and  four  shillings  a  league 
for  traveUing  expenses. 


OP    CANADA.  311 

The  legislative  council  exercises  the  attributes 
of  the  House   of  Lords  in  Great   Britain,  having 

f tower  to  alter  and  even  to  reject  all  bills  sent  up 
rom  the  lower  house  ;  they  can  also  originate 
bills,  which,  however,  must  pass  the  ordeal  of  the 
representative  assembly.  It  was  at  first  proposed 
that  this  body  should  consist  of  hereditary  nobility, 
selected  from  the  great  landed  proprietors ;  but  as 
■uch  a  class  could  scarcely  exist  in  a  new  country, 
where  so  few  possessed  large  fortunes  or  the  means 
of  acquiring  them,  it  was  finally  determined  that 
the  members  should  be  appointed  for  life  by  man- 
damus from  the  king. 

The  governor,  with  the  aid  of  an  executive  coun- 
cil of  eleven,  appointed,  like  himself,  by  the  sover- 
eign, exercised  all  the  executive  functions.  No 
act  passed  by  the  legislature  could  become  law  til' 
it  received  his  assent,  which  he  had  power  to  sus- 
pend till  the  measure  had  been  submitted  to  the 
government  at  home ;  and  even  after  it  had  been 
sanctioned  by  him  and  come  into  operation,  the 
king  retained  the  power  of  disallowing  it  within 
two  years.  No  new  tax  could  be  imposed  without 
the  consent  of  the  Assembly  ;  and  though  this  law 
was  not  retrospective,  the  existing  burdens  were  so 
.  very  light  as  to  make  the  exception  of  little  conse- 
f  quence.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  legislature  extend- 
ed to  every  object  connected  with  the  colony ;  but 
any  act  affecting  religion,  its  ministers  or  revenues, 
or  the  waste  lands  belonging  to  the  crown,  was  to 
be  laid  before  the  two  houses  of  Parliament,  and 
remain  there  for  thirty  days  before  the  royal  assent 
could  be  given. 

The  constitution  of  Upper  Canada  was  made 
nearly  an  exact  copy  of  this  on  a  somewhiit  small- 
er scale.  The  House  of  Assembly  comprised  ori- 
ginally sixteen  members,  which,  with  the  increase 
of  population  and  settlement,  have  been  raised  to 
sixty-two. 


312        SOCIAL   AND    POLITICAL    STATE,  ETC. 

The  departments  of  finance,  military  defence, 
and  administration  of  justice  need  not  be  treated  at 
length,  as  they  will  doubtless  be  greatly  modified 
in  the  process  of  new-modelling  which  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  two  provinces  is  about  to  undergo. 

The  most  considerable  branch  of  revenue  is  de- 
rived from  the  duties  on  imported  goods,  which  are 
almost  wholly  in  Lower  Canada. 

The  entire  revenue  of  both  provinces  in  1834  was 
jEr275,330. 

The  British  government  have  usually  maintain* 
ed  three  regiments  of  the  line  in  Lower  Canada, 
but  this  number,  of  course,  has  been  of  late  much 
augmented.  The  mihtia  of  that  province  were  re- 
turned  in  1827  at  about  80,000  effective  men,  though 
these  had  among  them  only  10,000  muskets.  The 
militia  of  Upper  Canada  exceeds  50,000.* 

Justice  is  administered  by  two  courts  of  King's 
Bench  at  Quebec  and  Montreal,  each  consisting  of 
a  chief  justice  and  three  subordinate  ones.  There 
are  provincial  judges  in  the  districts  of  Three  Riv- 
ers, Gaspe,  and  St.  Francis ;  but  there  is  no  supreme 
tribunal,  which  Mr.  BuUer  considers  a  serious  de- 
fect. 

Such  had  been  for  nearly  fifty  years  the  consti- 
tution of  Canada.  But  in  consequence  of  events 
well  icnown  to  our  readers,  and  already  narrated,  it 
bas  been  to  a  great  extent  dissolved,  and  the  Brit- 
sh  Parliament  are  now  employed  in  the  important 
task  of  its  reconstruction. 

♦  Martin,  vol.  iii.,  p.  140,  280. 


BVO  or  TOL.  L 


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